*[[Central African Republic]]: French & [[Sango]] (official)<ref>[http://www.parliament.am/library/sahmanadrutyunner/kentronakanafrikyan.pdf Central African Republic's Constitution of 2004 with Amendments through 2010] Article 18</ref> and 50 other African languages.
*[[Central African Republic]]: French & [[Sango]] (official)<ref>[http://www.parliament.am/library/sahmanadrutyunner/kentronakanafrikyan.pdf Central African Republic's Constitution of 2004 with Amendments through 2010] Article 18</ref> and 50 other African languages.
*[[Chad]]: Arabic & French (official)<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Chad_2005.pdf Chad's Constitution of 1996 with Amendments through 2005] Article 9</ref> + more than 100 African languages.
*[[Chad]]: Arabic & French (official)<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Chad_2005.pdf Chad's Constitution of 1996 with Amendments through 2005] Article 9</ref> + more than 100 African languages.
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]: French (official) + [[Lingala]], [[Kongo language|Kongo]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] & [[Tshiluba]] (national languages)<ref>[http://www.constitutionnet.org/files/DRC%20-%20Congo%20Constitution.pdf THE CONSTITUTION OF THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO, 2005] Article 1</ref> + 238 other languages.
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]: French (official) + [[Lingala]], [[Kongo language|Kongo]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] & [[Tshiluba]] (national languages)<ref>[http://www.constitutionnet.org/files/DRC%20-%20Congo%20Constitution.pdf THE CONSTITUTION OF THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO, 2005] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130705042427/http://www.constitutionnet.org/files/DRC%20-%20Congo%20Constitution.pdf |date=2013-07-05 }} Article 1</ref> + 238 other languages.
*[[Equatorial Guinea]]: Spanish + French + Portuguese.<ref>Fundamental Law of Equatorial Guinea, as amended in 2012 [http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/guinee_equat-lois.htm#Nouveau_texte_de_la_Constitution_de_la_Guinée_équatoriale,_ {{fr icon}}] [http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/eqg128022.pdf {{es icon}}] <!-- http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/imgdb/2012/LEYFUNDAMENTALREFORMADA.pdf --></ref> [[Fang language|Fang]], [[Bube language|Bube]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[West African Pidgin English|Pidgin English]], [[Annobonese language|Annobonese]]<ref>{{cite web |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Equatorial Guinea: Overview |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] |date=20 May 2008 |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,MRGI,,GNQ,,4954ce2a2,0.html |accessdate=18 December 2012}}</ref><!--
*[[Equatorial Guinea]]: Spanish + French + Portuguese.<ref>Fundamental Law of Equatorial Guinea, as amended in 2012 [http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/guinee_equat-lois.htm#Nouveau_texte_de_la_Constitution_de_la_Guinée_équatoriale,_ {{fr icon}}] [http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/eqg128022.pdf {{es icon}}] <!-- http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/imgdb/2012/LEYFUNDAMENTALREFORMADA.pdf --></ref> [[Fang language|Fang]], [[Bube language|Bube]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[West African Pidgin English|Pidgin English]], [[Annobonese language|Annobonese]]<ref>{{cite web |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Equatorial Guinea: Overview |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] |date=20 May 2008 |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,MRGI,,GNQ,,4954ce2a2,0.html |accessdate=18 December 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130113125024/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,MRGI,,GNQ,,4954ce2a2,0.html |archivedate=13 January 2013 |df= }}</ref><!--
--><ref>{{cite book |title=Africa 2012 |first=James Tyler |last=Dickovick |publisher=Stryker Post |year=2012|isbn= 1610488822 |page=180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NdyYjQxd7uEC&pg=PA180 |accessdate=18 December 2012}}</ref>
--><ref>{{cite book |title=Africa 2012 |first=James Tyler |last=Dickovick |publisher=Stryker Post |year=2012|isbn= 1610488822 |page=180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NdyYjQxd7uEC&pg=PA180 |accessdate=18 December 2012}}</ref>
*[[Republic of the Congo]]: French (official) + [[Lingala]] & [[Kituba]] [[national language]]s<ref>[http://www.presidence.cg/files/my_files/constit200102.pdf 2002 Constitution of the Republic of the Congo] Article 6{{fr icon}}</ref> + other dialects, including Kikongo and Kituba (Kikongo creole).
*[[Republic of the Congo]]: French (official) + [[Lingala]] & [[Kituba]] [[national language]]s<ref>[http://www.presidence.cg/files/my_files/constit200102.pdf 2002 Constitution of the Republic of the Congo] Article 6{{fr icon}}</ref> + other dialects, including Kikongo and Kituba (Kikongo creole).
Line 115:
Line 115:
*[[Mexico]]: The government recognizes 62 indigenous languages{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}, including [[Nahuatl]] spoken by more than 1.5 million people and [[Aquacatec]] spoken by 27 people, along with Spanish. Indigenous languages are recognised as national languages in areas where they are spoken<ref>[http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/257.pdf Ley general de derechos lingüísticos de los pueblos indígenas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611011220/http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/257.pdf |date=2008-06-11 }} Art. 4 {{es icon}}</ref> There is no official language at the federal level, although Spanish is the ''de facto'' state language.
*[[Mexico]]: The government recognizes 62 indigenous languages{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}, including [[Nahuatl]] spoken by more than 1.5 million people and [[Aquacatec]] spoken by 27 people, along with Spanish. Indigenous languages are recognised as national languages in areas where they are spoken<ref>[http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/257.pdf Ley general de derechos lingüísticos de los pueblos indígenas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611011220/http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/257.pdf |date=2008-06-11 }} Art. 4 {{es icon}}</ref> There is no official language at the federal level, although Spanish is the ''de facto'' state language.
**In [[Yucatán]], [[Yucatec Maya language]] is recognised in state constitution<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120312010305/http://www.congresoyucatan.gob.mx/pdf/CONSTITUCION.pdf CONSTITUCIÓN POLÍTICA DEL ESTADO DE YUCATÁN] Artículo 7 Bis.{{es icon}}</ref>
**In [[Yucatán]], [[Yucatec Maya language]] is recognised in state constitution<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120312010305/http://www.congresoyucatan.gob.mx/pdf/CONSTITUCION.pdf CONSTITUCIÓN POLÍTICA DEL ESTADO DE YUCATÁN] Artículo 7 Bis.{{es icon}}</ref>
**In Oaxaca state constitution, 15 indigenous communities are listed. Certain use of their languages in education and court proceedings is provided for.<ref>[http://www.oaxaca.gob.mx/wp-content/uploads/legislacion/ConstitucionpoliticadelEstadodeOaxaca.pdf Constitution of Oaxaca] Art. 12, 16, 126{{es icon}}</ref>
**In Oaxaca state constitution, 15 indigenous communities are listed. Certain use of their languages in education and court proceedings is provided for.<ref>[http://www.oaxaca.gob.mx/wp-content/uploads/legislacion/ConstitucionpoliticadelEstadodeOaxaca.pdf Constitution of Oaxaca] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413210815/http://www.oaxaca.gob.mx/wp-content/uploads/legislacion/ConstitucionpoliticadelEstadodeOaxaca.pdf |date=2016-04-13 }} Art. 12, 16, 126{{es icon}}</ref>
**In Campeche state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and teaching them in schools are provided for<ref>[http://www.ieec.org.mx/ConstEst.pdf Constitution of Campeche] art. 7{{es icon}}</ref>
**In Campeche state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and teaching them in schools are provided for<ref>[http://www.ieec.org.mx/ConstEst.pdf Constitution of Campeche] art. 7{{es icon}}</ref>
**In [[Quintana Roo]] state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for; also, the laws are to be published in Maya language<ref>[http://www.ieqroo.org.mx/descargas/2016/compendio_2016.pdf Constitution of Quintana Roo] art.13{{es icon}} see pages 20-22</ref>
**In [[Quintana Roo]] state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for; also, the laws are to be published in Maya language<ref>[http://www.ieqroo.org.mx/descargas/2016/compendio_2016.pdf Constitution of Quintana Roo] art.13{{es icon}} see pages 20-22</ref>
Line 122:
Line 122:
*In [[Nicaragua]], even while [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is the official language spoken broadwide (almost 95%, according to some sources{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}), there are other ''de facto'' languages such as [[English-based creole languages|Creole]], [[Miskito language|Miskitu]], [[Rama language|Rama]] and [[Mayangna language|Mayangna]] (Sumu) in their own linguistic communities. According to the Constitution, the languages of the Atlantic Coasts should be used officially in cases established by law.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Nicaragua_2005?lang=en The Political Constitution of the Republic of Nicaragua] Article 11</ref>
*In [[Nicaragua]], even while [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is the official language spoken broadwide (almost 95%, according to some sources{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}), there are other ''de facto'' languages such as [[English-based creole languages|Creole]], [[Miskito language|Miskitu]], [[Rama language|Rama]] and [[Mayangna language|Mayangna]] (Sumu) in their own linguistic communities. According to the Constitution, the languages of the Atlantic Coasts should be used officially in cases established by law.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Nicaragua_2005?lang=en The Political Constitution of the Republic of Nicaragua] Article 11</ref>
*[[Paraguay]], 48% of its population is bilingual{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} in [[Guaraní language|Guaraní]] and Spanish (both official languages of the Republic<ref>[http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Paraguay/para1992.html Political Constitution of 1992] Art. 140{{es icon}}</ref>), of whom 37% speak only Guaraní and 8% only Spanish but the latter increases with the use of [[Jopará]]. There is a large [[Mennonite]] [[German language|German]] colony in the [[Gran Chaco]] region as well.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}
*[[Paraguay]], 48% of its population is bilingual{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} in [[Guaraní language|Guaraní]] and Spanish (both official languages of the Republic<ref>[http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Paraguay/para1992.html Political Constitution of 1992] Art. 140{{es icon}}</ref>), of whom 37% speak only Guaraní and 8% only Spanish but the latter increases with the use of [[Jopará]]. There is a large [[Mennonite]] [[German language|German]] colony in the [[Gran Chaco]] region as well.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}
*[[Peru]]'s official languages are Spanish and, in the zones where they are predominant, [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]], and other aboriginal languages.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Peru_2009?lang=en Constitution of Peru] Article 48</ref><ref>[http://culturaperu.org/sites/default/files/usuarios/7/Ley29735.pdf Ley N° 29735, Ley que regula el uso, preservación, desarrollo, recuperación, fomento y difusión de las lenguas originarias del Perú]{{es icon}} <!-- http://centroderecursos.cultura.pe/sites/default/files/rb/pdf/Ley29735Leydelenguas2011.pdf http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/per104052.pdf --></ref> In addition to that, in Peru there is a large community of immigrants, of which few keep their languages. Within those, there are the Japanese and the Chinese (Cantonese dialect), for example and in smaller numbers, the Germans (central Andes), Italian, the Arabic speakers, and the Urdu speakers retain their native languages in Peru. The last two are products of the recent wave of immigrants from Palestine and Pakistan. Lately also have much influence is the English by the number of tourists and American and British residents.
*[[Peru]]'s official languages are Spanish and, in the zones where they are predominant, [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]], and other aboriginal languages.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Peru_2009?lang=en Constitution of Peru] Article 48</ref><ref>[http://culturaperu.org/sites/default/files/usuarios/7/Ley29735.pdf Ley N° 29735, Ley que regula el uso, preservación, desarrollo, recuperación, fomento y difusión de las lenguas originarias del Perú] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404011809/http://culturaperu.org/sites/default/files/usuarios/7/Ley29735.pdf |date=2016-04-04 }}{{es icon}} <!-- http://centroderecursos.cultura.pe/sites/default/files/rb/pdf/Ley29735Leydelenguas2011.pdf http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/per104052.pdf --></ref> In addition to that, in Peru there is a large community of immigrants, of which few keep their languages. Within those, there are the Japanese and the Chinese (Cantonese dialect), for example and in smaller numbers, the Germans (central Andes), Italian, the Arabic speakers, and the Urdu speakers retain their native languages in Peru. The last two are products of the recent wave of immigrants from Palestine and Pakistan. Lately also have much influence is the English by the number of tourists and American and British residents.
*[[Puerto Rico]]'s official languages<ref>{{Cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vyQDYqz2kFsC&pg=RA1-PA62&lpg=RA1-PA62&dq=%22puerto+rico%22+official+language+1993 |title = Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity |author=Nancy Morris |year = 1995 |publisher=Praeger/Greenwood |page = 62 |isbn = 0275952282 |postscript = <!--None-->}} + ''Crawford J.'' [http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/can-pr.htm Puerto Rico and Official English] 1997</ref> and languages of legislature<ref>[http://www.constitution.org/cons/puertorico-eng.htm Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico] Article III</ref> are Spanish and English, yet 85 percent of its inhabitants reported that they did not speak English "very well."{{Citation needed|date=September 2014}}
*[[Puerto Rico]]'s official languages<ref>{{Cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vyQDYqz2kFsC&pg=RA1-PA62&lpg=RA1-PA62&dq=%22puerto+rico%22+official+language+1993 |title = Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity |author=Nancy Morris |year = 1995 |publisher=Praeger/Greenwood |page = 62 |isbn = 0275952282 |postscript = <!--None-->}} + ''Crawford J.'' [http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/can-pr.htm Puerto Rico and Official English] 1997</ref> and languages of legislature<ref>[http://www.constitution.org/cons/puertorico-eng.htm Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico] Article III</ref> are Spanish and English, yet 85 percent of its inhabitants reported that they did not speak English "very well."{{Citation needed|date=September 2014}}
*In [[Suriname]], Dutch, [[Sranan Tongo|Sranan]], and English are spoken by almost everyone.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} In addition, Chinese and various Indian languages are spoken.
*In [[Suriname]], Dutch, [[Sranan Tongo|Sranan]], and English are spoken by almost everyone.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} In addition, Chinese and various Indian languages are spoken.
Line 137:
Line 137:
**In US, states with a large historic ([[New Spain]]) and recently arrived Spanish-speaking population such as [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Arizona]], [[Colorado]], and [[Florida]] will often provide government services at the municipal level in Spanish as well as English. For example, in Florida, [[Hialeah, Florida|Hialeah]] recognizes both English and Spanish while [[Miami, Florida|Miami]] recognizes English and Spanish as official government languages.
**In US, states with a large historic ([[New Spain]]) and recently arrived Spanish-speaking population such as [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Arizona]], [[Colorado]], and [[Florida]] will often provide government services at the municipal level in Spanish as well as English. For example, in Florida, [[Hialeah, Florida|Hialeah]] recognizes both English and Spanish while [[Miami, Florida|Miami]] recognizes English and Spanish as official government languages.
** Some [[Indian reservations]] in the US have begun to use indigenous languages of their tribal nations, but the official language of all the reservations is English.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The most prevalent indigenous languages include [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]], [[Cherokee language|Cherokee]], [[Navajo language|Navajo]], [[Muscogee language|Muscogee]], [[Lakota language|Lakota-Sioux]] and [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]].
** Some [[Indian reservations]] in the US have begun to use indigenous languages of their tribal nations, but the official language of all the reservations is English.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The most prevalent indigenous languages include [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]], [[Cherokee language|Cherokee]], [[Navajo language|Navajo]], [[Muscogee language|Muscogee]], [[Lakota language|Lakota-Sioux]] and [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]].
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]] - in the predominantly Trinidadian English Creole-speaking country where [[Trinidadian English]] is official, Spanish was introduced as the second language of bilingual traffic signs and is spoken among 5% of the population fluently.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newsday.co.tt/letters/0,87863.html|title=Spanish road signs quite correct |work= Trinidad and Tobago's Newsday |date = October 10, 2008}}</ref> and is generally the "first foreign language".<ref>[http://www.stte.gov.tt/Programmes/SIS/SISOverview.aspx Spanish Implementation Secretariat]</ref> [[Caribbean Hindustani|Trinidadian Hindustani]] is rarely used, but spoken among [[Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian|Indo Trinidadian]] families, mostly the elders who preserve their ancestral language. Hindi is also used when singing songs of [[Indian subcontinent|East Indian]] origins and in the Hindu Temples. [[Antillean Creole|Trinidadian French Creole (Patois)]] is widely spoken in the communities of the northern suburbs of [[Port of Spain]] such as [[Maraval]] and [[Paramin]], where there are descendants of the early French Immigrants to Trinidad.
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]] - in the predominantly Trinidadian English Creole-speaking country where [[Trinidadian English]] is official, Spanish was introduced as the second language of bilingual traffic signs and is spoken among 5% of the population fluently.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newsday.co.tt/letters/0,87863.html|title=Spanish road signs quite correct |work= Trinidad and Tobago's Newsday |date = October 10, 2008}}</ref> and is generally the "first foreign language".<ref>[http://www.stte.gov.tt/Programmes/SIS/SISOverview.aspx Spanish Implementation Secretariat] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218034959/http://www.stte.gov.tt/Programmes/SIS/SISOverview.aspx |date=2015-02-18 }}</ref> [[Caribbean Hindustani|Trinidadian Hindustani]] is rarely used, but spoken among [[Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian|Indo Trinidadian]] families, mostly the elders who preserve their ancestral language. Hindi is also used when singing songs of [[Indian subcontinent|East Indian]] origins and in the Hindu Temples. [[Antillean Creole|Trinidadian French Creole (Patois)]] is widely spoken in the communities of the northern suburbs of [[Port of Spain]] such as [[Maraval]] and [[Paramin]], where there are descendants of the early French Immigrants to Trinidad.
* [[Uruguay]] has a large [[Italian Uruguayan|Italian-speaking minority]] also proficient in Spanish. Its border with Brazil has a mixed Portuguese-speaking presence.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}
* [[Uruguay]] has a large [[Italian Uruguayan|Italian-speaking minority]] also proficient in Spanish. Its border with Brazil has a mixed Portuguese-speaking presence.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}
*[[Venezuela]] has declared Spanish the official language, while there are some European and Arabic languages spoken in urban areas, [[Caribbean English]] dialects in the Caribbean and indigenous languages spoken in the [[Guayana Region|Guayana]] department. The use of native languages also has official status for native peoples<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060406134952/http://www.analitica.com/bitblioteca/venezuela/constitucion_ingles.pdf Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela] Art. 9</ref>
*[[Venezuela]] has declared Spanish the official language, while there are some European and Arabic languages spoken in urban areas, [[Caribbean English]] dialects in the Caribbean and indigenous languages spoken in the [[Guayana Region|Guayana]] department. The use of native languages also has official status for native peoples<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060406134952/http://www.analitica.com/bitblioteca/venezuela/constitucion_ingles.pdf Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela] Art. 9</ref>
Line 151:
Line 151:
*[[East Timor]] — Tetum and Portuguese are the official languages; English and Indonesian "shall be [[working language]]s within the public administration side by side with official languages as long as it is deemed necessary"<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/East_Timor_2002?lang=en Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor] Art. 13, 159</ref>
*[[East Timor]] — Tetum and Portuguese are the official languages; English and Indonesian "shall be [[working language]]s within the public administration side by side with official languages as long as it is deemed necessary"<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/East_Timor_2002?lang=en Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor] Art. 13, 159</ref>
*[[India]]. [[File:pathanamthitta-to-sabarimala.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A sign-board that indicates the direction to [[Sabarimala]], a pilgrim station in India. The multilingual board is written in [[Hindi]], [[Malayalam]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and English (in that order, from top to bottom)]] There are [[Languages with official status in India|23 official languages]] in the states and territories of India (Including Hindi and English, the languages with official use in the whole federation<ref>[http://deity.gov.in/content/official-language-act Official Language Act] <!-- http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/official_lang/downloads/act1963_eng.PDF --></ref>). The largest, Hindi, is spoken natively by 40% of the population. English is also widely used, although mainly in urban parts of the country. A large number of students with a high-school education would generally be bilingual — speaking their own native language, in addition to English, with varying fluency, possibly Hindi as well, the languages being compulsorily (in select states) taught in most schools and colleges. see [[Languages of India]].
*[[India]]. [[File:pathanamthitta-to-sabarimala.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A sign-board that indicates the direction to [[Sabarimala]], a pilgrim station in India. The multilingual board is written in [[Hindi]], [[Malayalam]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and English (in that order, from top to bottom)]] There are [[Languages with official status in India|23 official languages]] in the states and territories of India (Including Hindi and English, the languages with official use in the whole federation<ref>[http://deity.gov.in/content/official-language-act Official Language Act] <!-- http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/official_lang/downloads/act1963_eng.PDF --></ref>). The largest, Hindi, is spoken natively by 40% of the population. English is also widely used, although mainly in urban parts of the country. A large number of students with a high-school education would generally be bilingual — speaking their own native language, in addition to English, with varying fluency, possibly Hindi as well, the languages being compulsorily (in select states) taught in most schools and colleges. see [[Languages of India]].
*[[Indonesia]] is the largest bilingual country in the world, with approximately 200 million people speak more than one language. Indonesian speak about 746 different languages.<ref>[http://pusatbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/lamanv42/?q=detail_berita/555 Peluncuran Peta Bahasa Indonesia] (not in English)</ref> [[Javanese language|Javanese]] has the most users in terms of native speakers (about 80 million). But interestingly, the sole official (or so-called "unity language") is [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] which has only 30 million L1 speakers (compared to Indonesia 260 million population). The role of Indonesian is important to glue together different ethnics and languages in Indonesia. Though Indonesian is considered the nation's only official language, regional governments have rights to conduct [[Languages of Indonesia|regional languages]] study at schools. Many people in [[Indonesia]] are bilingual at an early age. They speak a local native language with their families whereas the official [[Indonesian language]] is used to communicate with people from other regions and is taught in schools as a compulsory subject.
*[[Indonesia]] is the largest bilingual country in the world, with approximately 200 million people speak more than one language. Indonesian speak about 746 different languages.<ref>[http://pusatbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/lamanv42/?q=detail_berita/555 Peluncuran Peta Bahasa Indonesia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523011440/http://pusatbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/lamanv42/?q=detail_berita%2F555 |date=2012-05-23 }} (not in English)</ref> [[Javanese language|Javanese]] has the most users in terms of native speakers (about 80 million). But interestingly, the sole official (or so-called "unity language") is [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] which has only 30 million L1 speakers (compared to Indonesia 260 million population). The role of Indonesian is important to glue together different ethnics and languages in Indonesia. Though Indonesian is considered the nation's only official language, regional governments have rights to conduct [[Languages of Indonesia|regional languages]] study at schools. Many people in [[Indonesia]] are bilingual at an early age. They speak a local native language with their families whereas the official [[Indonesian language]] is used to communicate with people from other regions and is taught in schools as a compulsory subject.
*In [[Iran]], [[Persian language|Persian]] is the sole official language, but [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] (along with related varieties such as [[Qashqa'i]] and [[Kalaj]]) has upwards of 15 million speakers{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}. Other minority languages include [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], and [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Assyrian]] is spoken by a Christian minority in the vicinity of [[Urmia]]. In the southwestern [[Iran]]ian province of [[Khuzestan]], most people speak [[Khuzestani Persian]], [[Khuzestani Arabic]], and [[Persian language|Standard Persian]], sometimes in addition to their own community languages such as [[Lur]], [[Qashqa'i]], [[Domari]] or [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] where applicable.
*In [[Iran]], [[Persian language|Persian]] is the sole official language, but [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] (along with related varieties such as [[Qashqa'i]] and [[Kalaj]]) has upwards of 15 million speakers{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}. Other minority languages include [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], and [[Balochi language|Balochi]]. [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Assyrian]] is spoken by a Christian minority in the vicinity of [[Urmia]]. In the southwestern [[Iran]]ian province of [[Khuzestan]], most people speak [[Khuzestani Persian]], [[Khuzestani Arabic]], and [[Persian language|Standard Persian]], sometimes in addition to their own community languages such as [[Lur]], [[Qashqa'i]], [[Domari]] or [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] where applicable.
*In [[Iraq]], Arabic is the official language of the state, [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is the official language of the [[Iraqi Kurdistan|north]] where 4 million native speakers live. The use of Turkmen, Assyrian, and Armenian in education is provided for in the Constitution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Iraq_2005?lang=en|title=Constitute|work=constituteproject.org}}</ref> Other languages also exist among Christian communities north of and around Baghdad, such as [[Aramaic]].
*In [[Iraq]], Arabic is the official language of the state, [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is the official language of the [[Iraqi Kurdistan|north]] where 4 million native speakers live. The use of Turkmen, Assyrian, and Armenian in education is provided for in the Constitution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Iraq_2005?lang=en|title=Constitute|work=constituteproject.org}}</ref> Other languages also exist among Christian communities north of and around Baghdad, such as [[Aramaic]].
Line 157:
Line 157:
*In [[Laos]], [[Lao]] is the official language, but French is understood and used by government.
*In [[Laos]], [[Lao]] is the official language, but French is understood and used by government.
*In [[Lebanon]], Arabic is the official and national language; the Constitution provides for the conditions of using French to be provided by law.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Lebanon_2004?lang=en Constitution of Lebanon] Article 11</ref> Many Lebanese are fluent in English and in French.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Armenian is also a language mainly used in the Armenian community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iloubnan.info/fr/actualite/id/43259/titre/%22Hi,-kifak,-%C3%A7a-va?:-quand-l'arabe-p%E2tit-du-m%E9lange-des-langues-au-Liban |title=Portail d'actualités sur le Liban |publisher=iloubnan.info |date= |accessdate=2014-02-15}}</ref>
*In [[Lebanon]], Arabic is the official and national language; the Constitution provides for the conditions of using French to be provided by law.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Lebanon_2004?lang=en Constitution of Lebanon] Article 11</ref> Many Lebanese are fluent in English and in French.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Armenian is also a language mainly used in the Armenian community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iloubnan.info/fr/actualite/id/43259/titre/%22Hi,-kifak,-%C3%A7a-va?:-quand-l'arabe-p%E2tit-du-m%E9lange-des-langues-au-Liban |title=Portail d'actualités sur le Liban |publisher=iloubnan.info |date= |accessdate=2014-02-15}}</ref>
*In [[Malaysia]], nearly all people have a working knowledge of [[Malay language|Malay]] and English.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} Malay is the official language of the country, along with English in the state of [[Sarawak]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/sarawak-makes-english-official-language-along-with-bm|title=Sarawak makes English official language along with BM|work=themalaymailonline.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theborneopost.com/2015/11/18/sarawak-to-recognise-english-as-official-language-besides-bahasa-malaysia/|title=Sarawak to recognise English as official language besides Bahasa Malaysia|work=BorneoPost Online - Borneo, Malaysia, Sarawak Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/1615945|title=Sarawak adopts English as official language|work=thesundaily.my}}</ref> Malay and English are compulsory subjects taught in all public schools, and English is the language of instruction for science and mathematics. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ([[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]) and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] are spoken by the Chinese and Indian communities respectively, and are the languages of instruction in Chinese and Tamil primary schools respectively.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} Among the Chinese community, apart from Mandarin, several Chinese languages especially [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], [[Hokkien]], [[Cantonese]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and among Indians, [[Tamil language|Tamil]] is the most spoken and dominant language. The indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak speak their ancestral languages (Dayak, Iban etc.). However, it is not uncommon for the locals to be fluent in several of the above languages.{{specify|date=February 2015}} The Constitution provides for use of Sabah and Sarawak languages in native courts or for any code of native law and custom.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Malaysia_2007?lang=en Constitution of Malaysia] Art. 161</ref>
*In [[Malaysia]], nearly all people have a working knowledge of [[Malay language|Malay]] and English.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} Malay is the official language of the country, along with English in the state of [[Sarawak]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/sarawak-makes-english-official-language-along-with-bm|title=Sarawak makes English official language along with BM|work=themalaymailonline.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theborneopost.com/2015/11/18/sarawak-to-recognise-english-as-official-language-besides-bahasa-malaysia/|title=Sarawak to recognise English as official language besides Bahasa Malaysia|work=BorneoPost Online - Borneo, Malaysia, Sarawak Daily News|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305082141/http://www.theborneopost.com/2015/11/18/sarawak-to-recognise-english-as-official-language-besides-bahasa-malaysia/|archivedate=2016-03-05|df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/1615945|title=Sarawak adopts English as official language|work=thesundaily.my}}</ref> Malay and English are compulsory subjects taught in all public schools, and English is the language of instruction for science and mathematics. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ([[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]) and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] are spoken by the Chinese and Indian communities respectively, and are the languages of instruction in Chinese and Tamil primary schools respectively.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} Among the Chinese community, apart from Mandarin, several Chinese languages especially [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], [[Hokkien]], [[Cantonese]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and among Indians, [[Tamil language|Tamil]] is the most spoken and dominant language. The indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak speak their ancestral languages (Dayak, Iban etc.). However, it is not uncommon for the locals to be fluent in several of the above languages.{{specify|date=February 2015}} The Constitution provides for use of Sabah and Sarawak languages in native courts or for any code of native law and custom.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Malaysia_2007?lang=en Constitution of Malaysia] Art. 161</ref>
*[[Languages of Pakistan|Pakistan]]. The national language is Urdu; English was allowed to be used for official purposes until arrangements are made for its replacement by Urdu<ref>[http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/part12.ch4.html Art. 251] Constitution of Pakistan</ref> There are many regional languages and dialects (the latter are often unintelligible from other dialects of the "same language"). Many high-school and college educated Pakistanis are trilingual, being able to speak English and Urdu as well as their own regional language with varying fluency.
*[[Languages of Pakistan|Pakistan]]. The national language is Urdu; English was allowed to be used for official purposes until arrangements are made for its replacement by Urdu<ref>[http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/part12.ch4.html Art. 251] Constitution of Pakistan</ref> There are many regional languages and dialects (the latter are often unintelligible from other dialects of the "same language"). Many high-school and college educated Pakistanis are trilingual, being able to speak English and Urdu as well as their own regional language with varying fluency.
*[[Languages of the Philippines|Philippines]]: The [[Constitution of the Philippines|Philippine constitution]]. designates [[Filipino language|Filipino]] as the national language and, along with English, as official languages. Regional languages are designated as auxiliary official languages in the regions which shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic are designated to be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.<ref>[http://www.chanrobles.com/article14language.htm#.VOZajPmsWCo Constitution of the Republic of Philippines] Article 14, Sections 6, 7</ref> Some people in native Tagalog areas are bilingual, while in non-Tagalog areas it is common to be multilingual in Filipino, English, and in one or more of the regional [[Languages of the Philippines|language]]s, or as in other cases in languages such as Spanish, [[Southern Min|Minnan]] ([[Hokkien]]), and Arabic due to factors such as ancestry and religion. Eleven regional languages are recognised by the government as auxiliary official languages in their respective regions, while 90+ other languages and dialects are spoken by various groups.
*[[Languages of the Philippines|Philippines]]: The [[Constitution of the Philippines|Philippine constitution]]. designates [[Filipino language|Filipino]] as the national language and, along with English, as official languages. Regional languages are designated as auxiliary official languages in the regions which shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic are designated to be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.<ref>[http://www.chanrobles.com/article14language.htm#.VOZajPmsWCo Constitution of the Republic of Philippines] Article 14, Sections 6, 7</ref> Some people in native Tagalog areas are bilingual, while in non-Tagalog areas it is common to be multilingual in Filipino, English, and in one or more of the regional [[Languages of the Philippines|language]]s, or as in other cases in languages such as Spanish, [[Southern Min|Minnan]] ([[Hokkien]]), and Arabic due to factors such as ancestry and religion. Eleven regional languages are recognised by the government as auxiliary official languages in their respective regions, while 90+ other languages and dialects are spoken by various groups.
*[[Republics of Russia]]:
*[[Republics of Russia]]:
**[[Buryatia]] — Russian and Buryat are official languages<ref>[http://egov-buryatia.ru/fileadmin/isbirkom/Normativnye_akty/Zakony_RB/2014/1_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D0%91.docx Constitution of Buryatia] Art. 67{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Buryatia]] — Russian and Buryat are official languages<ref>[http://egov-buryatia.ru/fileadmin/isbirkom/Normativnye_akty/Zakony_RB/2014/1_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D0%91.docx Constitution of Buryatia] Art. 67{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Altai Republic]] — Russian and Altay are official languages<ref>[http://www.altai-republic.ru/const.html#121 Constitution of the Altai Republic] Art. 13{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Altai Republic]] — Russian and Altay are official languages<ref>[http://www.altai-republic.ru/const.html#121 Constitution of the Altai Republic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101215424/http://www.altai-republic.ru/const.html |date=2013-11-01 }} Art. 13{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Tuva]] — Russian and Tyvan are official languages<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_tiva/chapter/1/#2000 Constitution of Tuva] Art. 5{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Tuva]] — Russian and Tyvan are official languages<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_tiva/chapter/1/#2000 Constitution of Tuva] Art. 5{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Khakassia]] — Russian and Khakas are official languages<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_hakas/chapter/3/#block_300 Constitution of Khakassia] Art. 69{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Khakassia]] — Russian and Khakas are official languages<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_hakas/chapter/3/#block_300 Constitution of Khakassia] Art. 69{{ru icon}}</ref>
Line 186:
Line 186:
*[[Andorra]] has one official language, [[Catalan language|Catalan]]. Other languages (mainly Spanish, Portuguese and French) are also spoken without official recognition.
*[[Andorra]] has one official language, [[Catalan language|Catalan]]. Other languages (mainly Spanish, Portuguese and French) are also spoken without official recognition.
*[[Austria]] has one official language, [[German language|German]]. However it also has Croatian and Slovenian minorities, all of whose languages are protected under federal laws.<ref>[https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20217/v217.pdf State treaty for the re-establishment of an independent and democratic Austria] Article 7 (see pages 229, 231)</ref> Certain functions are also guaranteed for Romany, Hungarian, Czech and Slovakian in Vienna and Burgenland, under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.<ref name="auto">[http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=7&DF=08/01/2012&CL=ENG&VL=1 List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148] Council of Europe Treaty Office</ref>
*[[Austria]] has one official language, [[German language|German]]. However it also has Croatian and Slovenian minorities, all of whose languages are protected under federal laws.<ref>[https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20217/v217.pdf State treaty for the re-establishment of an independent and democratic Austria] Article 7 (see pages 229, 231)</ref> Certain functions are also guaranteed for Romany, Hungarian, Czech and Slovakian in Vienna and Burgenland, under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.<ref name="auto">[http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=7&DF=08/01/2012&CL=ENG&VL=1 List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148] Council of Europe Treaty Office</ref>
*[[Belarus]] has two official languages: [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Russian language|Russian]].<ref>[http://law.by/main.aspx?guid=3871&p0=V19402875e Constitution of Belarus] Article 17</ref>
*[[Belarus]] has two official languages: [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Russian language|Russian]].<ref>[http://law.by/main.aspx?guid=3871&p0=V19402875e Constitution of Belarus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626112010/http://law.by/main.aspx?guid=3871&p0=V19402875e |date=2015-06-26 }} Article 17</ref>
*[[Belgium]] has three official languages: [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (59%) in the north, [[French language|French]] (31%) in the south and a small minority speaks [[German language|German]]. Its bilingual capital, [[Brussels]] (10%), is mainly French, with Dutch as minority. These languages have the status of 'official language' only in specified language areas as defined by the constitution.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Belgium_2012?lang=en Constitution of Belgium] Article 4</ref> In [[Flanders]], 59% and 53% of the Flemings know French or English respectively; in [[Wallonia]], only 19% and 17% know Dutch or English. In each region, Belgium's third official language, German, is notably less known than Dutch, French or English.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Belgium's new linguistic challenges |author=[[Philippe Van Parijs|Van Parijs, Philippe]], Professor of economic and social ethics at the [[Université Catholique de Louvain|UCLouvain]], Visiting Professor at [[Harvard University]] and the [[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven|KULeuven]] |journal=KVS Express (supplement to newspaper ''[[De Morgen]]'') March–April 2007 |pages=Article from [http://www.kvs.be/kvs_express/KVS_EXPRESS_13_WEB.pdf original source (pdf 4.9 MB)] pages 34–36 republished by the Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy – Directorate–general Statistics Belgium |url=http://www.statbel.fgov.be/studies/ac699_en.pdf |format=pdf 0.7 MB |accessdate=2007-05-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613234540/http://www.statbel.fgov.be/studies/ac699_en.pdf |archivedate=2007-06-13 |df= }} — The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimations of the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed in detail.</ref> Wallonia recognises all of its vernacular dialect groups as regional languages, Flanders does not.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}
*[[Belgium]] has three official languages: [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (59%) in the north, [[French language|French]] (31%) in the south and a small minority speaks [[German language|German]]. Its bilingual capital, [[Brussels]] (10%), is mainly French, with Dutch as minority. These languages have the status of 'official language' only in specified language areas as defined by the constitution.<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Belgium_2012?lang=en Constitution of Belgium] Article 4</ref> In [[Flanders]], 59% and 53% of the Flemings know French or English respectively; in [[Wallonia]], only 19% and 17% know Dutch or English. In each region, Belgium's third official language, German, is notably less known than Dutch, French or English.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Belgium's new linguistic challenges |author=[[Philippe Van Parijs|Van Parijs, Philippe]], Professor of economic and social ethics at the [[Université Catholique de Louvain|UCLouvain]], Visiting Professor at [[Harvard University]] and the [[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven|KULeuven]] |journal=KVS Express (supplement to newspaper ''[[De Morgen]]'') March–April 2007 |pages=Article from [http://www.kvs.be/kvs_express/KVS_EXPRESS_13_WEB.pdf original source (pdf 4.9 MB)] pages 34–36 republished by the Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy – Directorate–general Statistics Belgium |url=http://www.statbel.fgov.be/studies/ac699_en.pdf |format=pdf 0.7 MB |accessdate=2007-05-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613234540/http://www.statbel.fgov.be/studies/ac699_en.pdf |archivedate=2007-06-13 |df= }} — The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimations of the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed in detail.</ref> Wallonia recognises all of its vernacular dialect groups as regional languages, Flanders does not.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}
*[[Cyprus]] has 2 official languages: [[Greek language|Greek]] & [[Turkish language|Turkish]].<ref>[http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presidency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf Constitution of Cyprus] Article 3</ref> Both languages were spoken throughout the island before 1974. After 1974, and the partition of the island, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] became the sole official language in the [[Turkish-Cypriot]]-controlled north whereas the - internationally recognized - [[Republic of Cyprus]] retains both languages as official. English is also widely spoken and understood throughout the island.
*[[Cyprus]] has 2 official languages: [[Greek language|Greek]] & [[Turkish language|Turkish]].<ref>[http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presidency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf Constitution of Cyprus] Article 3</ref> Both languages were spoken throughout the island before 1974. After 1974, and the partition of the island, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] became the sole official language in the [[Turkish-Cypriot]]-controlled north whereas the - internationally recognized - [[Republic of Cyprus]] retains both languages as official. English is also widely spoken and understood throughout the island.
Line 192:
Line 192:
*[[Denmark]] has one official language, [[Danish language|Danish]], but in [[South Jutland County|South Jutland]], use of German for certain functions is provided for. In [[Greenland]], [[Greenlandic language|Greelandic]] is the principal language, while Danish must be thoroughly taught.<ref name="auto"/>
*[[Denmark]] has one official language, [[Danish language|Danish]], but in [[South Jutland County|South Jutland]], use of German for certain functions is provided for. In [[Greenland]], [[Greenlandic language|Greelandic]] is the principal language, while Danish must be thoroughly taught.<ref name="auto"/>
*[[Estonia]] has one official language, [[Estonian language|Estonian]], but there is also a sizeable [[Russians in Estonia|Russian-speaking community]] (around 30% in 2000) who speak [[Russian language|Russian]]. Russian and other minority languages can theoretically be used in communication with local government and state institutions within the borders of certain constituencies where most permanent residents belong to a respective national minority (Article 51 of the [[Constitution of Estonia#Chapter 2: Fundamental Rights, Liberties, and Duties|Constitution]]). Only citizens of Estonia are considered to belong to national minorities; thus, the provision is only applicable in three parishes and two towns.<ref>Ирина Каблукова [http://rus.postimees.ee/4219825/neznanie-gosudarstvennogo-yazyka-prav-ne-lishaet Незнание государственного языка прав не лишает] [[Postimees]] 23.08.2017{{ru icon}}</ref> Many{{specify}} Estonians can speak Russian, but many{{specify}} Russians are not fluent in Estonian including those who are Estonian citizens,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/I_Databas/Population_census/databasetree.asp |title=Statistical database |publisher=Pub.stat.ee |date= |accessdate=2014-02-15}}</ref> however fluency varies considerably between age groups.
*[[Estonia]] has one official language, [[Estonian language|Estonian]], but there is also a sizeable [[Russians in Estonia|Russian-speaking community]] (around 30% in 2000) who speak [[Russian language|Russian]]. Russian and other minority languages can theoretically be used in communication with local government and state institutions within the borders of certain constituencies where most permanent residents belong to a respective national minority (Article 51 of the [[Constitution of Estonia#Chapter 2: Fundamental Rights, Liberties, and Duties|Constitution]]). Only citizens of Estonia are considered to belong to national minorities; thus, the provision is only applicable in three parishes and two towns.<ref>Ирина Каблукова [http://rus.postimees.ee/4219825/neznanie-gosudarstvennogo-yazyka-prav-ne-lishaet Незнание государственного языка прав не лишает] [[Postimees]] 23.08.2017{{ru icon}}</ref> Many{{specify}} Estonians can speak Russian, but many{{specify}} Russians are not fluent in Estonian including those who are Estonian citizens,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/I_Databas/Population_census/databasetree.asp |title=Statistical database |publisher=Pub.stat.ee |date= |accessdate=2014-02-15}}</ref> however fluency varies considerably between age groups.
*[[Faroe Islands]] has two official languages: [[Faroese language|Faroese]] and [[Danish language|Danish]].<ref>[http://www.logir.fo/foldb/kunfo/1948/0000011.htm § 11, "Lov om Færøernes Hjemmestyre"]</ref> The other Scandinavian languages, [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], are understood by most without much difficulty.<ref>[http://www.norden.org/sv/publikationer/publikationer/2005-573/at_download/publicationfile Håller språket ihop Norden? - EN forskningsrapport om ungdomars föståelse av danska, svenska och norska]</ref> [[English language|English]] is taught in schools, often as a third language.
*[[Faroe Islands]] has two official languages: [[Faroese language|Faroese]] and [[Danish language|Danish]].<ref>[http://www.logir.fo/foldb/kunfo/1948/0000011.htm § 11, "Lov om Færøernes Hjemmestyre"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720203308/http://www.logir.fo/foldb/kunfo/1948/0000011.htm |date=2011-07-20 }}</ref> The other Scandinavian languages, [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], are understood by most without much difficulty.<ref>[http://www.norden.org/sv/publikationer/publikationer/2005-573/at_download/publicationfile Håller språket ihop Norden? - EN forskningsrapport om ungdomars föståelse av danska, svenska och norska]</ref> [[English language|English]] is taught in schools, often as a third language.
*[[Finland]] is constitutionally bilingual and has therefore two equally national languages, [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], and the minority languages [[Sami languages|Sami]] ([[Northern Sami]], [[Inari Sami language|Inari Sami]] and [[Skolt Sami language|Skolt Sami]]), [[Romani language|Romani]] and [[Finnish Sign Language]] are recognized by the constitution.<ref>[https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf Section 17]</ref> Swedish is spoken by a minority, about 5.5% native speakers ([[Swedes in Finland]]) concentrated [[Svenskfinland|along the coast]] and on the [[Åland|Åland Islands]]. Municipalities are bilingual if the Swedish or Finnish minority is at least 6–8%. Åland is monolingually Swedish by law. Sami is official language (besides Finnish) in the municipalities of northern Finland.
*[[Finland]] is constitutionally bilingual and has therefore two equally national languages, [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], and the minority languages [[Sami languages|Sami]] ([[Northern Sami]], [[Inari Sami language|Inari Sami]] and [[Skolt Sami language|Skolt Sami]]), [[Romani language|Romani]] and [[Finnish Sign Language]] are recognized by the constitution.<ref>[https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf Section 17]</ref> Swedish is spoken by a minority, about 5.5% native speakers ([[Swedes in Finland]]) concentrated [[Svenskfinland|along the coast]] and on the [[Åland|Åland Islands]]. Municipalities are bilingual if the Swedish or Finnish minority is at least 6–8%. Åland is monolingually Swedish by law. Sami is official language (besides Finnish) in the municipalities of northern Finland.
*[[France]] has a [[Language policy in France|strict monolingual policy]] for the republic to conduct government business only in [[French language|French]]. There are, however, levels of fluency in [[languages of France|regional languages]]: [[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Breton language|Breton]] (the regional government of [[Britanny]] adopted some politics to promote teaching Breton<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.bretagne.bzh/jcms/JB080117_6202/fr/langues-de-bretagne|title = La politique linguistique de la Région - Développer les langues de Bretagne <!--|date = without date-->|accessdate = September 26, 2015|website = |publisher = Regional Government of Brittany Region|last = |first = }}</ref>), [[Catalan language|Catalan]] (the department of [[Pyrénées-Orientales]] has a particular charter for supporting Catalan<ref>[http://www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm Charte en faveur du Catalan] {{fr icon}}</ref>), [[Corsican language|Corsican]] (teaching it in the island's schools is provided for by law)<ref>[http://www.mercator-research.eu/fileadmin/mercator/dossiers_pdf/Corsican_in_France-webeditie.pdf The Corsican language in education in France. 2nd Edition] Regional dossiers series / Mercator-Education {{ISSN|1570-1239}} — р. 8</ref>), [[Flemish]], [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], and [[Occitan]] (sometimes called [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]). The country as whole is dominated by French linguistically.
*[[France]] has a [[Language policy in France|strict monolingual policy]] for the republic to conduct government business only in [[French language|French]]. There are, however, levels of fluency in [[languages of France|regional languages]]: [[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Breton language|Breton]] (the regional government of [[Britanny]] adopted some politics to promote teaching Breton<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.bretagne.bzh/jcms/JB080117_6202/fr/langues-de-bretagne|title = La politique linguistique de la Région - Développer les langues de Bretagne <!--|date = without date-->|accessdate = September 26, 2015|website = |publisher = Regional Government of Brittany Region|last = |first = }}</ref>), [[Catalan language|Catalan]] (the department of [[Pyrénées-Orientales]] has a particular charter for supporting Catalan<ref>[http://www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm Charte en faveur du Catalan] {{fr icon}}</ref>), [[Corsican language|Corsican]] (teaching it in the island's schools is provided for by law)<ref>[http://www.mercator-research.eu/fileadmin/mercator/dossiers_pdf/Corsican_in_France-webeditie.pdf The Corsican language in education in France. 2nd Edition] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722053928/http://www.mercator-research.eu/fileadmin/mercator/dossiers_pdf/Corsican_in_France-webeditie.pdf |date=2013-07-22 }} Regional dossiers series / Mercator-Education {{ISSN|1570-1239}} — р. 8</ref>), [[Flemish]], [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], and [[Occitan]] (sometimes called [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]). The country as whole is dominated by French linguistically.
*[[Germany]] has [[German language|German]] as its official national language. [[Low Saxon languages|Low Saxon]] (“Low German”) is recognized as a regional language in at least five north German states. [[Low Rhenish]] is recognized in [[Northrhine-Westphalia]]. [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]] is an official minority language in [[Brandenburg]], [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]] in [[Saxony]], [[Saterland Frisian language|Sater Frisian]] in a part of [[Lower Saxony]], and [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]] varieties and [[Danish language|Danish]] in [[Schleswig-Holstein]]. A language without its own territory, [[Romani language|Romany]] (including the language of the [[Sinte]] people) is an official minority language as well.<ref name="auto"/> Germany is home to large numbers of people from other regions, and some of their languages, such as [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and [[Polish language|Polish]], are widely used throughout the country. However, those languages are considered foreign and thus are given no official status.
*[[Germany]] has [[German language|German]] as its official national language. [[Low Saxon languages|Low Saxon]] (“Low German”) is recognized as a regional language in at least five north German states. [[Low Rhenish]] is recognized in [[Northrhine-Westphalia]]. [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]] is an official minority language in [[Brandenburg]], [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]] in [[Saxony]], [[Saterland Frisian language|Sater Frisian]] in a part of [[Lower Saxony]], and [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]] varieties and [[Danish language|Danish]] in [[Schleswig-Holstein]]. A language without its own territory, [[Romani language|Romany]] (including the language of the [[Sinte]] people) is an official minority language as well.<ref name="auto"/> Germany is home to large numbers of people from other regions, and some of their languages, such as [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and [[Polish language|Polish]], are widely used throughout the country. However, those languages are considered foreign and thus are given no official status.
*[[Gibraltar]] is a [[British overseas territory]] whose sole official language is [[English language|English]]. Given Gibraltar's size, most of the population is also fluent in Spanish due to its vicinity with Spain. [[Gibraltarian people|Gibraltarians]] also use [[Llanito]] as their local [[vernacular]].
*[[Gibraltar]] is a [[British overseas territory]] whose sole official language is [[English language|English]]. Given Gibraltar's size, most of the population is also fluent in Spanish due to its vicinity with Spain. [[Gibraltarian people|Gibraltarians]] also use [[Llanito]] as their local [[vernacular]].
Line 233:
Line 233:
**[[Komi Republic]] — Russian and [[Komi language|Komi]] are co-official<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_komi/chapter/3/#3000 Constitution of Komi Republic] Article 67{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Komi Republic]] — Russian and [[Komi language|Komi]] are co-official<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_komi/chapter/3/#3000 Constitution of Komi Republic] Article 67{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[North Ossetia–Alania]] — Russian and [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] are co-official<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_osetiya/chapter/1/#1000 Constitution of North Ossetia–Alania] Article 15{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[North Ossetia–Alania]] — Russian and [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] are co-official<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_osetiya/chapter/1/#1000 Constitution of North Ossetia–Alania] Article 15{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Udmurtia]] — Russian and [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]] are co-official<ref>[http://www.udmgossovet.ru/udmurtskaya_respublika/konstitutsiya/#1 Constitution of Udmurtia] Article 8{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Udmurtia]] — Russian and [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]] are co-official<ref>[http://www.udmgossovet.ru/udmurtskaya_respublika/konstitutsiya/#1 Constitution of Udmurtia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222091741/http://udmgossovet.ru/udmurtskaya_respublika/konstitutsiya/ |date=2015-02-22 }} Article 8{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Chechen Republic]] — Russian and [[Chechen language|Chechen]] are co-official<ref>[http://chechnya.gov.ru/page.php?r=63 Constitution of the Chechen Republic] Article 10{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Chechen Republic]] — Russian and [[Chechen language|Chechen]] are co-official<ref>[http://chechnya.gov.ru/page.php?r=63 Constitution of the Chechen Republic] Article 10{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Chuvashia]] — Russian and [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]] are co-official<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_chuvash/chapter/1/#1000 Constitution of Chuvashia] Article 8{{ru icon}}</ref>
**[[Chuvashia]] — Russian and [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]] are co-official<ref>[http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_chuvash/chapter/1/#1000 Constitution of Chuvashia] Article 8{{ru icon}}</ref>
Line 253:
Line 253:
*In most countries of the Former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], and [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] are understood by all three groups (see [[Serbo-Croatian]]) - and smaller languages in the other republics of Slovenia ([[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]), Macedonia ([[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]) and (Montenegro) [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]. Other languages have co-official status in some parts of these countries (e.g. [[Italian language|Italian]] in [[Istria]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] in [[Vojvodina]]).
*In most countries of the Former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], and [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] are understood by all three groups (see [[Serbo-Croatian]]) - and smaller languages in the other republics of Slovenia ([[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]), Macedonia ([[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]) and (Montenegro) [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]. Other languages have co-official status in some parts of these countries (e.g. [[Italian language|Italian]] in [[Istria]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] in [[Vojvodina]]).
*In [[Turkey]], the [[Constitution of Turkey]] defines [[Turkish language|Turkish]] as the only official language of the country (art. 3) and explicitly prohibits educational institutions to teach any language other than Turkish as a mother tongue to Turkish citizens (art. 42). In 2013, the [[Ministry of National Education (Turkey)|Ministry of Education]] included [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]], [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] and [[Laz language|Laz]] languages to the academic programme of the basic schools as optional classes from the fifth year on.<ref>http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25466180</ref>
*In [[Turkey]], the [[Constitution of Turkey]] defines [[Turkish language|Turkish]] as the only official language of the country (art. 3) and explicitly prohibits educational institutions to teach any language other than Turkish as a mother tongue to Turkish citizens (art. 42). In 2013, the [[Ministry of National Education (Turkey)|Ministry of Education]] included [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]], [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] and [[Laz language|Laz]] languages to the academic programme of the basic schools as optional classes from the fifth year on.<ref>http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25466180</ref>
**In 2010, Kurdish municipalities in the southeast decided to begin printing water bills, [[marriage certificate]]s and construction and [[road sign]]s, as well as emergency, social and cultural notices in Kurdish alongside Turkish. Friday [[Khutbah|sermons]] by Imams began to be delivered in the language, and [[Esnaf]] provided Kurdish price tags.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://en.firatnews.com/news/features/on-trial-for-speaking-kurdish.htm|title=On trial for speaking Kurdish|date=11 May 2011|newspaper=ANF-Firatnews|accessdate=12 June 2013}}</ref> Before August 2002, the Turkish government placed severe restrictions on the use of [[Kurdish language]], prohibiting the language in education and broadcast media.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/action/special/zana.html|title=Special Focus Cases: Leyla Zana, Prisoner of Conscience|publisher=Amnestyusa.org|accessdate=2 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freemuse.org/sw6195.asp|title=Kurdish performers banned, Appeal from International PEN|publisher=Freemuse.org|accessdate=2 December 2011}}</ref> In March 2006, Turkey allowed private television channels to begin airing programming in Kurdish. However, the Turkish government said that they must avoid showing children's [[cartoon]]s, or educational programs that teach Kurdish, and could broadcast only for 45 minutes a day or four hours a week.<ref>[http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/D4687417-BAB7-426A-9F30-8D16A9DEE206.htm Turkey to get Kurdish television] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060513082443/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/D4687417-BAB7-426A-9F30-8D16A9DEE206.htm|date=13 May 2006}}</ref> However, most of these restrictions on private Kurdish television channels were relaxed in September 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trt.net.tr/Haber/HaberDetay.aspx?HaberKodu=139bfcf2-18ef-46b2-937b-010ad9411f0f|title=TRT HABER - Özel Kürtçe Kanala Yeşil Işık|date=28 November 2011|publisher=Trt.net.tr|accessdate=2 December 2011}}</ref>
**In 2010, Kurdish municipalities in the southeast decided to begin printing water bills, [[marriage certificate]]s and construction and [[road sign]]s, as well as emergency, social and cultural notices in Kurdish alongside Turkish. Friday [[Khutbah|sermons]] by Imams began to be delivered in the language, and [[Esnaf]] provided Kurdish price tags.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://en.firatnews.com/news/features/on-trial-for-speaking-kurdish.htm|title=On trial for speaking Kurdish|date=11 May 2011|newspaper=ANF-Firatnews|accessdate=12 June 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130615172358/http://en.firatnews.com/news/features/on-trial-for-speaking-kurdish.htm|archivedate=15 June 2013|df=}}</ref> Before August 2002, the Turkish government placed severe restrictions on the use of [[Kurdish language]], prohibiting the language in education and broadcast media.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/action/special/zana.html|title=Special Focus Cases: Leyla Zana, Prisoner of Conscience|publisher=Amnestyusa.org|accessdate=2 December 2011|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050510082350/http://www.amnestyusa.org/action/special/zana.html|archivedate=10 May 2005|df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freemuse.org/sw6195.asp|title=Kurdish performers banned, Appeal from International PEN|publisher=Freemuse.org|accessdate=2 December 2011|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113034636/http://www.freemuse.org/sw6195.asp|archivedate=13 January 2012|df=}}</ref> In March 2006, Turkey allowed private television channels to begin airing programming in Kurdish. However, the Turkish government said that they must avoid showing children's [[cartoon]]s, or educational programs that teach Kurdish, and could broadcast only for 45 minutes a day or four hours a week.<ref>[http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/D4687417-BAB7-426A-9F30-8D16A9DEE206.htm Turkey to get Kurdish television] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060513082443/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/D4687417-BAB7-426A-9F30-8D16A9DEE206.htm|date=13 May 2006}}</ref> However, most of these restrictions on private Kurdish television channels were relaxed in September 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trt.net.tr/Haber/HaberDetay.aspx?HaberKodu=139bfcf2-18ef-46b2-937b-010ad9411f0f|title=TRT HABER - Özel Kürtçe Kanala Yeşil Işık|date=28 November 2011|publisher=Trt.net.tr|accessdate=2 December 2011}}</ref>
*In [[Ukraine]], Russian, Hungarian and Romanian are granted status of a regional language in certain areas ([[Language policy in Ukraine]]). [[Carpathian Ruthenia]], [[Ukraine]], Slovaks living near [[Uzhhorod]] speak Ukrainian and Hungarian in addition to their mother tongue, Slovakian. In villages near [[Mukachevo]] Germans (Swabian dialect speakers) also speak Hungarian and Ukrainian.
*In [[Ukraine]], Russian, Hungarian and Romanian are granted status of a regional language in certain areas ([[Language policy in Ukraine]]). [[Carpathian Ruthenia]], [[Ukraine]], Slovaks living near [[Uzhhorod]] speak Ukrainian and Hungarian in addition to their mother tongue, Slovakian. In villages near [[Mukachevo]] Germans (Swabian dialect speakers) also speak Hungarian and Ukrainian.
*The only national language of the United Kingdom is English, however there are several regional languages recognised:
*The only national language of the United Kingdom is English, however there are several regional languages recognised:
**[[Wales]]: 611,000 [[Welsh language|Welsh]] speakers, including the majority of the population in parts of north and west Wales.<ref>[http://www.byig-wlb.org.uk/English/publications/Publications/1339.JPG Map of percentage able to speak Welsh, 2001]</ref> English is widely used. Across Wales, both English and Welsh have equal official status; the priority given to each, for instance on road signs, is determined by each local authority.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-11490897|title=Assembly measure gives Welsh status 'equal to English'|work=BBC News}}</ref> {{further|Languages of Wales}}
**[[Wales]]: 611,000 [[Welsh language|Welsh]] speakers, including the majority of the population in parts of north and west Wales.<ref>[http://www.byig-wlb.org.uk/English/publications/Publications/1339.JPG Map of percentage able to speak Welsh, 2001] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524061935/http://www.byig-wlb.org.uk/English/publications/Publications/1339.JPG |date=2011-05-24 }}</ref> English is widely used. Across Wales, both English and Welsh have equal official status; the priority given to each, for instance on road signs, is determined by each local authority.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-11490897|title=Assembly measure gives Welsh status 'equal to English'|work=BBC News}}</ref> {{further|Languages of Wales}}
**[[Northern Ireland]]: [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]], a variety of [[Scots language|Scots]], is spoken by some in Northern Ireland, but again English is far more commonly used and Ulster Scots is less actively used in media. Irish and Ulster Scots now both have official{{specify|date=February 2015}} status in Northern Ireland as part of the 1998 [[Belfast Agreement]];<ref>Economic, Social and Cultural Issues // [https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/136652/agreement.pdf Belfast Agreement]</ref> certain functions are granted to those two languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.<ref name="auto"/>
**[[Northern Ireland]]: [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]], a variety of [[Scots language|Scots]], is spoken by some in Northern Ireland, but again English is far more commonly used and Ulster Scots is less actively used in media. Irish and Ulster Scots now both have official{{specify|date=February 2015}} status in Northern Ireland as part of the 1998 [[Belfast Agreement]];<ref>Economic, Social and Cultural Issues // [https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/136652/agreement.pdf Belfast Agreement]</ref> certain functions are granted to those two languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.<ref name="auto"/>
**[[Scotland]]: 58,652 [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] speakers, mostly concentrated in the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] and the [[Hebrides]], the traditional heartland of Gaelic culture. The [[Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005]] provides for the status of the Gaelic language as an official language of Scotland commanding equal respect to the English language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2005/7/introduction|title=Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005|work=legislation.gov.uk}}</ref> Also [[Scots language|Scots]] with approximately 2 to 3 million speakers — a Germanic language closely related to English.
**[[Scotland]]: 58,652 [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] speakers, mostly concentrated in the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] and the [[Hebrides]], the traditional heartland of Gaelic culture. The [[Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005]] provides for the status of the Gaelic language as an official language of Scotland commanding equal respect to the English language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2005/7/introduction|title=Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005|work=legislation.gov.uk}}</ref> Also [[Scots language|Scots]] with approximately 2 to 3 million speakers — a Germanic language closely related to English.
Line 270:
Line 270:
*New Zealand — a small percentage of the population has some reasonable degree of bilingualism in English and [[Māori language|Māori]], mostly among the Māori themselves; few are fully fluent in Māori.{{specify|date=February 2015}} [[New Zealand Sign Language]] has also an official status. English is the main language, with over 96% of the population speaking it fluently. Maori has been recognized as official since 1987.<ref>[http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1987/0176/latest/DLM124142.html Section 3] Māori Language Act 1987</ref>
*New Zealand — a small percentage of the population has some reasonable degree of bilingualism in English and [[Māori language|Māori]], mostly among the Māori themselves; few are fully fluent in Māori.{{specify|date=February 2015}} [[New Zealand Sign Language]] has also an official status. English is the main language, with over 96% of the population speaking it fluently. Maori has been recognized as official since 1987.<ref>[http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1987/0176/latest/DLM124142.html Section 3] Māori Language Act 1987</ref>
**Cook Islands — Cook Islands Maori and English.<ref>[http://www.parliament.gov.ck/Constitution.pdf Constitution of the Cook Islands] Art. 35</ref>
**Cook Islands — Cook Islands Maori and English.<ref>[http://www.parliament.gov.ck/Constitution.pdf Constitution of the Cook Islands] Art. 35</ref>
*Palau — Palauan traditional languages are the national languages. Palauan and English are the official languages.<ref>[http://www.palauembassy.com/Documents/ConstitutionE.pdf Constitution of the Republic of Palau] Article XIII</ref>
*Palau — Palauan traditional languages are the national languages. Palauan and English are the official languages.<ref>[http://www.palauembassy.com/Documents/ConstitutionE.pdf Constitution of the Republic of Palau] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107222024/http://www.palauembassy.com/Documents/ConstitutionE.pdf |date=2012-11-07 }} Article XIII</ref>
*Papua New Guinea — [[Tok Pisin]] (official), English (official), [[Hiri Motu]] (official), some 836 indigenous languages spoken<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pp.html#People|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov}}</ref>
*Papua New Guinea — [[Tok Pisin]] (official), English (official), [[Hiri Motu]] (official), some 836 indigenous languages spoken<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pp.html#People|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov}}</ref>
*Rapa Nui (Easter Island) — [[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]] along with [[Chilean Spanish]] are the 2 co-official languages of the island.
*Rapa Nui (Easter Island) — [[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]] along with [[Chilean Spanish]] are the 2 co-official languages of the island.
This is an incomplete list of areas with either multilingualism at the community level or at the personal level.
There is a distinction between social and personal bilingualism. Many countries, such as Belarus, Belgium, Canada, India, Ireland, South Africa and Switzerland, which are officially multilingual, may have many monolinguals in their population. Officially monolingual countries, on the other hand, such as France, can have sizable multilingual populations. Some countries have official languages but also have regional and local official languages, notably Brazil, China, Mexico, Russia, Spain, Taiwan.
Eritrea: Tigrinya, Arabic and English are predominantly used in commerce and government affairs. The use and development of nine Eritrean languages (Tigrinya, Bilen, Afar, Saho, Rashaida, Tigre, Kunama, Nara and Hidarib) are encouraged at the local level and children attend primary school through the fifth grade in their mother tongue.[18]
Ethiopia: the federal working languages is Amharic. On regional level, working languages are Tigrigna in Tigray[19], Afarigna in Afar[20], Oromifa (Oromigna) in Oromia[21], Somali in Somali region[22], Harari in Harari region[23]
Liberia: English (official) + 20 African languages.
Mali: French (official) + Bambara (most widely spoken) + Fula + Songhay (specifically Dendi). 11 languages are used as mediums of instruction in primary schools[44]
Niger: French (official) + Hausa (spoken by half the population) + Songhay (specifically Zarma)
Nigeria: English (official) + Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo as three other languages of the parliament[45] (each of which has over 20 million speakers) + 529 other African languages (some of which have over a million speakers) + Pidgin.
Senegal: French (official) + Wolof (most widely spoken) + Fula (specifically Pulaar), Diola, Malinké, Sérère, Soninké (national languages)[46] + other African languages
Argentina has several ethnic communities of European (esp. the Welsh language in Patagonia), Asian and indigenous origins (the Andean and northeast regions), who speak their own languages,[specify] but Spanish is the sole official language of the country.
Aruba: Papiamento and Dutch are the official languages, with Spanish and English also widely spoken. All four languages are taught in schools.[47]
Belize: English, Spanish and Mayan languages have some official usage[citation needed], although the legacy of British rule emphasised English to be most commonly used for official purposes though the majority are Hispanophone.
Bolivia is officially multilingual, supporting Spanish and 36 native languages.[48]
Brazil, Portuguese (official) and upwards to 100 languages spoken mainly in the urban areas (European and Asian) and indigenous languages in the Amazon. The use of indigenous languages in primary education is enshrined in the constitution.[49]
Canada is officially bilingual under the Official Languages Act and the Constitution of Canada that require the federal government to deliver services in both official languages. As well, minority language rights are guaranteed where numbers warrant. 56.9% of the population speak English as their first language while 22.9% are native speakers of French. The remaining population belong to some of Canada's many immigrant populations or to the indigenous population. See Bilingualism in Canada
The Canadian province of New Brunswick, with a large Acadian population (33% French-speaking) is officially bilingual.[53]
The Canadian province of Quebec, (7.9% English-speaking)[citation needed] Note: Although there is a relatively sizable English-speaking population in Quebec, French is the only official language of the provincial government. At the same time, certain functions in education are foreseen for English, Amerindian languages and Inuktitut, certain functions in legislative activities and judiciary - for English.[54] Many government services are available in English and French.[citation needed]
There are also significant French language minorities in the provinces of Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Prince Edward Island. Though these provinces are not officially bilingual they do provide a number of services in French[specify], Ontario has a particular French Language Services Act and Manitoba — a French Language Services Policy,[55] as well as a special law on recognition of seven indigenous languages[56]
Yukon allows the use of Yukon languages in its legislative assembly, along French and English[59]
In many of Canada's First Nations' communities in the more isolated regions, aboriginal languages are retained. English and French are accepted in the community at the community elders' discretion.[citation needed]
In the 2006 Canadian census, information and questions are available in sixty-two languages, including eighteen First Nations languages.
Caribbean Netherlands — Dutch (overall), English (Sint Eustatius and Saba) and Papiamentu (Bonaire)[60]
Chile uses de facto Spanish as official language, but there are not an act that declares officiality. The Indigenous Act ratified in 1992 permites the official usage of four indigenous languages: Aimara, Mapudungun, Quechua and Rapa Nui (Easter Island in Polynesia) inside the indigenous communities and areas with high native population density.[61] In the southern portion, there is a sizable but bilingual German-speaking population.
Ecuador defines Spanish as its official language, but Spanish, Quechua and Shuar — as official languages of intercultural relations in the Article 2 of the 2008 Constitution.[65]
In Guatemala, the official language is Spanish, however, there are 23[citation needed] distinct Mayan languages. Maya, Garifuna and Xincan languages are recognized to be essential elements of the national identity.[66]
Guyana, English (official), Hindi, Chinese, indigenous languages, and a small Portuguese-speaking community. The Amerindian Act orders the National Toshaos Council to promote the recognition and use of Amerindian languages.[67]
Honduras: Spanish is the official language, despite Afro-Caribbean English, Garifuna and indigenous languages can be found in the rural outskirts of the country.
Mexico: The government recognizes 62 indigenous languages[citation needed], including Nahuatl spoken by more than 1.5 million people and Aquacatec spoken by 27 people, along with Spanish. Indigenous languages are recognised as national languages in areas where they are spoken[69] There is no official language at the federal level, although Spanish is the de facto state language.
In Oaxaca state constitution, 15 indigenous communities are listed. Certain use of their languages in education and court proceedings is provided for.[71]
In Campeche state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and teaching them in schools are provided for[72]
In Quintana Roo state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for; also, the laws are to be published in Maya language[73]
In Chihuahua state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts, education, health care and government-disseminated information is provided for[74]
In Chiapas state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for[75]
In Nicaragua, even while Spanish is the official language spoken broadwide (almost 95%, according to some sources[citation needed]), there are other de facto languages such as Creole, Miskitu, Rama and Mayangna (Sumu) in their own linguistic communities. According to the Constitution, the languages of the Atlantic Coasts should be used officially in cases established by law.[76]
Paraguay, 48% of its population is bilingual[citation needed] in Guaraní and Spanish (both official languages of the Republic[77]), of whom 37% speak only Guaraní and 8% only Spanish but the latter increases with the use of Jopará. There is a large MennoniteGerman colony in the Gran Chaco region as well.[citation needed]
Peru's official languages are Spanish and, in the zones where they are predominant, Quechua, Aymara, and other aboriginal languages.[78][79] In addition to that, in Peru there is a large community of immigrants, of which few keep their languages. Within those, there are the Japanese and the Chinese (Cantonese dialect), for example and in smaller numbers, the Germans (central Andes), Italian, the Arabic speakers, and the Urdu speakers retain their native languages in Peru. The last two are products of the recent wave of immigrants from Palestine and Pakistan. Lately also have much influence is the English by the number of tourists and American and British residents.
Puerto Rico's official languages[80] and languages of legislature[81] are Spanish and English, yet 85 percent of its inhabitants reported that they did not speak English "very well."[citation needed]
In Suriname, Dutch, Sranan, and English are spoken by almost everyone.[citation needed] In addition, Chinese and various Indian languages are spoken.
In the United States, at the federal level, there is no official language, although there have been efforts to make English the official language. Use of several languages in electoral process under certain circumstances is provided for by federal law, including Spanish in the whole states of Florida, California and Texas.[82]
The US state of California has Dymally-Alatorre Bilingual Services Act[83] requiring state and local agencies serving a “substantial number of non-English speaking people” to employ a “qualified bilingual staff” and to translate certain documents into clients’ languages.[84]
The US state of New Mexico provides certain guarantees for the use of Spanish, alongside English, in its constitution[85] and electoral laws.[86] Its state laws also provide for using Spanish and Native American languages in education [87]
The US state of New York provides translation of vital documents and interpretation into six languages alongside English.[88]
The US state of Texas provides in its law for translating to Spanish certain information on agency websites[89]
The US state of Louisiana has mandated the Louisiana French Language Services Program and the Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism to work on providing state government services in French, to the extent practicable[90] It also expressly allows the use of French in legal process and publishing official documents.[91]
The Saint John River valley in the US state of Maine[92][93][94][95] and some areas in Vermont[96][97] are unofficially bilingual (de facto) in English and French.
The US state of Hawaii is officially bilingual in English and Hawaiian.[98]
In US, states with a large historic (New Spain) and recently arrived Spanish-speaking population such as California, Nevada, Arizona, Colorado, and Florida will often provide government services at the municipal level in Spanish as well as English. For example, in Florida, Hialeah recognizes both English and Spanish while Miami recognizes English and Spanish as official government languages.
Trinidad and Tobago - in the predominantly Trinidadian English Creole-speaking country where Trinidadian English is official, Spanish was introduced as the second language of bilingual traffic signs and is spoken among 5% of the population fluently.[104] and is generally the "first foreign language".[105]Trinidadian Hindustani is rarely used, but spoken among Indo Trinidadian families, mostly the elders who preserve their ancestral language. Hindi is also used when singing songs of East Indian origins and in the Hindu Temples. Trinidadian French Creole (Patois) is widely spoken in the communities of the northern suburbs of Port of Spain such as Maraval and Paramin, where there are descendants of the early French Immigrants to Trinidad.
Venezuela has declared Spanish the official language, while there are some European and Arabic languages spoken in urban areas, Caribbean English dialects in the Caribbean and indigenous languages spoken in the Guayana department. The use of native languages also has official status for native peoples[106]
Bahrain: Arabic is the official language, and English is the most commonly used and studied second language, especially in education, international relations, and the media. In addition, Persian and Urdu are widely spoken.[citation needed]
Cambodia: Khmer is the official language, but French is spoken by a minority and sometimes used in government and education.[citation needed]
In China, Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) is the official language and is spoken in all regions. It is used for official and formal purposes, by the media, and in education as the language of instruction. However, on money notes, there are texts both in Mandarin (Han) and in Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, and Zhuang.[110] In every locality and region, local varieties of Chinese are spoken in daily life. These range from being quite similar to Putonghua, such as Tianjin dialect, to those that are mutually unintelligible with Putonghua such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai dialect (Wu) or Guangzhou dialect (Cantonese). In the autonomous regions, minority languages are used (such as Tibetan in Tibet[111] or Mongolian in Inner Mongolia,[112] Uyghur, Kazakh and others in Xinjiang[113]).
In Hong Kong, English and Chinese are official languages.[114] All road signs are written in both languages. English is the dominant language in the judiciary and in higher education. Hong Kong Cantonese is the first language of the majority of the population, and is the dominant language in many aspects of everyday life. While Cantonese is the widely spoken form of Chinese in Hong Kong, Standard Mandarin is also taught in schools. The degrees of proficiency in English and Mandarin vary from person to person.
In Macau, both Chinese and Portuguese are official languages.[115] While Cantonese is the dominant form of Chinese, Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) is also spoken. Chinese is taught in all schools, while Portuguese is mainly taught in government schools. In addition, English is also taught in many schools.
East Timor — Tetum and Portuguese are the official languages; English and Indonesian "shall be working languages within the public administration side by side with official languages as long as it is deemed necessary"[116]
India. A sign-board that indicates the direction to Sabarimala, a pilgrim station in India. The multilingual board is written in Hindi, Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and English (in that order, from top to bottom) There are 23 official languages in the states and territories of India (Including Hindi and English, the languages with official use in the whole federation[117]). The largest, Hindi, is spoken natively by 40% of the population. English is also widely used, although mainly in urban parts of the country. A large number of students with a high-school education would generally be bilingual — speaking their own native language, in addition to English, with varying fluency, possibly Hindi as well, the languages being compulsorily (in select states) taught in most schools and colleges. see Languages of India.
Indonesia is the largest bilingual country in the world, with approximately 200 million people speak more than one language. Indonesian speak about 746 different languages.[118]Javanese has the most users in terms of native speakers (about 80 million). But interestingly, the sole official (or so-called "unity language") is Indonesian which has only 30 million L1 speakers (compared to Indonesia 260 million population). The role of Indonesian is important to glue together different ethnics and languages in Indonesia. Though Indonesian is considered the nation's only official language, regional governments have rights to conduct regional languages study at schools. Many people in Indonesia are bilingual at an early age. They speak a local native language with their families whereas the official Indonesian language is used to communicate with people from other regions and is taught in schools as a compulsory subject.
In Iraq, Arabic is the official language of the state, Kurdish is the official language of the north where 4 million native speakers live. The use of Turkmen, Assyrian, and Armenian in education is provided for in the Constitution.[119] Other languages also exist among Christian communities north of and around Baghdad, such as Aramaic.
In Israel, Arabic and Hebrew both have official status (see Languages of Israel). Jewish immigrants to Israel (especially from Europe) have a different mother tongue, such as Arabic, Amharic, Yiddish, Ladino, Russian, Romanian, Polish, Ukrainian, English, or French and many Jewish immigrants from Latin America speak Spanish and Portuguese. The native Arab population of Palestine speaks Arabic. Functionally, almost all Arabs in Palestine also speak Hebrew. English is widely spoken and understood as a second language by both Arabs and Jews. Officially, road signs must be in Arabic, Hebrew, and a romanized Hebrew transliteration.
In Laos, Lao is the official language, but French is understood and used by government.
In Lebanon, Arabic is the official and national language; the Constitution provides for the conditions of using French to be provided by law.[120] Many Lebanese are fluent in English and in French.[citation needed] Armenian is also a language mainly used in the Armenian community.[121]
In Malaysia, nearly all people have a working knowledge of Malay and English.[citation needed] Malay is the official language of the country, along with English in the state of Sarawak.[122][123][124] Malay and English are compulsory subjects taught in all public schools, and English is the language of instruction for science and mathematics. Chinese (Mandarin) and Tamil are spoken by the Chinese and Indian communities respectively, and are the languages of instruction in Chinese and Tamil primary schools respectively.[citation needed] Among the Chinese community, apart from Mandarin, several Chinese languages especially Hakka, Hokkien, Cantonese and Teochew and among Indians, Tamil is the most spoken and dominant language. The indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak speak their ancestral languages (Dayak, Iban etc.). However, it is not uncommon for the locals to be fluent in several of the above languages.[specify] The Constitution provides for use of Sabah and Sarawak languages in native courts or for any code of native law and custom.[125]
Pakistan. The national language is Urdu; English was allowed to be used for official purposes until arrangements are made for its replacement by Urdu[126] There are many regional languages and dialects (the latter are often unintelligible from other dialects of the "same language"). Many high-school and college educated Pakistanis are trilingual, being able to speak English and Urdu as well as their own regional language with varying fluency.
Philippines: The Philippine constitution. designates Filipino as the national language and, along with English, as official languages. Regional languages are designated as auxiliary official languages in the regions which shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic are designated to be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.[127] Some people in native Tagalog areas are bilingual, while in non-Tagalog areas it is common to be multilingual in Filipino, English, and in one or more of the regional languages, or as in other cases in languages such as Spanish, Minnan (Hokkien), and Arabic due to factors such as ancestry and religion. Eleven regional languages are recognised by the government as auxiliary official languages in their respective regions, while 90+ other languages and dialects are spoken by various groups.
Singapore: English, Mandarin Chinese, Malay and Tamil are all official languages. Malay is the national language.[133] English is the main language used in Singapore.[134] As English links the different races, a group with diverse races communicate using English. Most of the population can speak, read and write in English. In addition to English, many Singaporeans can speak their respective ethnic language like Hakka fairly well, as it is a compulsory subject in school. In Chinese communities, the older generation usually speak their own language like Hakka besides Mandarin and/or English.
Sri Lanka. Sinhala and Tamil are official languages. English is referred to as the link language in the constitution.[135]
Rojava: the constitution of the de facto autonomous region designates Kurdish, Arabic and Syriac as official languages.[136]
Taiwan: Mandarin is the "official" language, but Taiwanese is commonly used in most people (especially adults and elders). In the Hakka community, some people are trilingual in Hakka, Mandarin and Taiwanese. Some 10 Aboriginal languages are also spoken in the mountain and eastern portion of the island. Their promotion and use are provided for by the Indigenous Peoples Basic Law[137] In 2017, a law providing for the use of indigenous languages in 55 municipalities was adopted.[138]
Tajikistan: Tajik as the state language and Russian, designated as language of interethnic communication in the constitution,[139] are widely spoken.[specify]
Thailand: Thai is the main and sole official language in Thailand. There are different dialects such as Phitsanulok, Ayutthaya, Suphan Buri(traditional dialect), Thonburi, but Standard Thai is influenced by Thai chinese in Bangkok, Isan which is influenced from Lao and widely used in the northeastern area,[specify]Southern Thai is spoken in the southern provinces, Northern Thai is spoken in the provinces that were formerly part of the independent kingdom of Lanna. Karen languages are spoken along the border with Burma, Khmer near Cambodia (and previously throughout central Thailand), and Malay in the south near Malaysia. The Thai hill tribes speak numerous small languages. Also, there is a big population of Chinese descent people in Thailand and the old generation often use Teochew as well as Hakka as their first language.[specify] The new generation tends to speak them as a second language or some may not know it at all,
Kazakhstan: Kazakh and Russian both have official status—Kazakh as the "state" language and Russian as "officially used on equal grounds along with the Kazak language".[140]
Kyrgyzstan: Kyrgyz is the state language and Russian "used in the capacity of an official language".[141]
United Arab Emirates: Arabic is the official language of the country, although English is an unofficial language it is widely accepted as the lingua franca as over 89% of the population is migrant. Almost everyone has a working knowledge of English. All road signs are written in both Arabic and English. English is the dominant in higher education and is a required ability for most local jobs. English is a compulsory subject in all public schools and is the language of instruction for mathematics and science.[142]
In Uzbekistan, Uzbek (official), Tajik, and Russian are all widely spoken.[specify] Use of Russian (alongside Uzbek) is foreseen for notarized documents and civic records[143][144]
In the autonomous Karakalpakstan, Karakalpak language is an official one, alongside Uzbek.[145]
Vietnam: Vietnamese is the official language, and English is the most commonly used and studied second language, especially in education, international relations, and the media. In addition, French is spoken by a small minority of people and elders as it used to be the most common second language. The right to use own language, also in courts, is foreseen in the constitution.[146]
Albania has one official language, Albanian. Other languages such as Greek and Italian are heavily spoken without official recognition, yet are minority languages. Albania recognises[citation needed] 6 minorities languages; Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Romanian, Hungarian, Greek and Italian. Majority Albanians are polyglots, speaking more than 3 languages, which is due to the high amount of Albanian immigrants in Europe and elsewhere, as well as political, socio-cultural relations with their neighbours. Today, Albanians are considered one of the most linguistically diverse peoples in Europe. Italian is spoken by a large amount of Albanians that have learnt the language by watching Italian television. Influx of Greeks in the country due to the Euro Crisis is elevating the status of Greek in the country. Albania is also part of the Francophonie, with 320,000 French speakers.
Andorra has one official language, Catalan. Other languages (mainly Spanish, Portuguese and French) are also spoken without official recognition.
Austria has one official language, German. However it also has Croatian and Slovenian minorities, all of whose languages are protected under federal laws.[147] Certain functions are also guaranteed for Romany, Hungarian, Czech and Slovakian in Vienna and Burgenland, under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[148]
Belgium has three official languages: Dutch (59%) in the north, French (31%) in the south and a small minority speaks German. Its bilingual capital, Brussels (10%), is mainly French, with Dutch as minority. These languages have the status of 'official language' only in specified language areas as defined by the constitution.[150] In Flanders, 59% and 53% of the Flemings know French or English respectively; in Wallonia, only 19% and 17% know Dutch or English. In each region, Belgium's third official language, German, is notably less known than Dutch, French or English.[151] Wallonia recognises all of its vernacular dialect groups as regional languages, Flanders does not.[citation needed]
Cyprus has 2 official languages: Greek & Turkish.[152] Both languages were spoken throughout the island before 1974. After 1974, and the partition of the island, Turkish became the sole official language in the Turkish-Cypriot-controlled north whereas the - internationally recognized - Republic of Cyprus retains both languages as official. English is also widely spoken and understood throughout the island.
In the Czech Republic, several municipalities of Zaolzie area have official bilingualism (Czech and Polish).[148] Bilingual signs are permitted if a minority constitutes at least a 10% of the population of the municipality.
Denmark has one official language, Danish, but in South Jutland, use of German for certain functions is provided for. In Greenland, Greelandic is the principal language, while Danish must be thoroughly taught.[148]
Estonia has one official language, Estonian, but there is also a sizeable Russian-speaking community (around 30% in 2000) who speak Russian. Russian and other minority languages can theoretically be used in communication with local government and state institutions within the borders of certain constituencies where most permanent residents belong to a respective national minority (Article 51 of the Constitution). Only citizens of Estonia are considered to belong to national minorities; thus, the provision is only applicable in three parishes and two towns.[153] Many[specify] Estonians can speak Russian, but many[specify] Russians are not fluent in Estonian including those who are Estonian citizens,[154] however fluency varies considerably between age groups.
Finland is constitutionally bilingual and has therefore two equally national languages, Finnish and Swedish, and the minority languages Sami (Northern Sami, Inari Sami and Skolt Sami), Romani and Finnish Sign Language are recognized by the constitution.[157] Swedish is spoken by a minority, about 5.5% native speakers (Swedes in Finland) concentrated along the coast and on the Åland Islands. Municipalities are bilingual if the Swedish or Finnish minority is at least 6–8%. Åland is monolingually Swedish by law. Sami is official language (besides Finnish) in the municipalities of northern Finland.
Germany has German as its official national language. Low Saxon (“Low German”) is recognized as a regional language in at least five north German states. Low Rhenish is recognized in Northrhine-Westphalia. Lower Sorbian is an official minority language in Brandenburg, Upper Sorbian in Saxony, Sater Frisian in a part of Lower Saxony, and North Frisian varieties and Danish in Schleswig-Holstein. A language without its own territory, Romany (including the language of the Sinte people) is an official minority language as well.[148] Germany is home to large numbers of people from other regions, and some of their languages, such as Turkish, Russian, and Polish, are widely used throughout the country. However, those languages are considered foreign and thus are given no official status.
Hungary, the official language is Hungarian. The country recognizes Beás, Croatian, German, Romani, Romanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene languages.[148] Use of those languages for certain functions is provided for by law, applying to localitites where the share of a relevant minority exceeds 10% or, for wider functions, 20%.[161]
Ireland, the first official language of Ireland is Irish, with the second being English.[162] English is the first language of the majority of the population.
Italy. The official language overall is Italian. However, the Italian law n. 482/1999 recognizes and protects twelve minority languages, like Sardinian, Friulian, Occitan, Greek, Albanian and other linguistic minorities.[163] Bilingualism is also applied in some territories:
Ladin municipalities of South Tyrol are trilingual (Italian, Ladin, and German).
In Veneto, there is a regional law on Venetian linguistic and cultural heritage.[166] In 2016, an additional law has been adopted, providing for the use of Venetian in schools, public institutions and toponymical signs.[167]
In Calabria, there is a regional law on minority languages, with Greek, Albanian and Franco-Provençal specifically named[168]
In Piedmont, there is a regional law on promoting linguistic heritage, with Occitan, German, French and Franco-Provençal minorities specifically named.[169]
Latvia has one official language, Latvian. Liv language is recognized as an autochthonous (in the Livonian coast, it is allowed to form toponyms in Liv alongside Latvian); the others are defined as "foreign" in the Official Language Law,[171] but there is also a sizeable minority with Russian as their native language - 37,3% of those answering the question on language used at home named Russian during the census (2011).[172]
Lithuania has one official language, Lithuanian. There is a small Polish-speaking minority among ethnic Poles. There is also a large number of fluent Russian speakers, primarily among older generations because of the Soviet era.
Luxembourg is a rare example of a truly trilingual society, in that it not only has three official languages – Luxembourgish, French and German[173] – but has a trilingual education system. For the first four years of school, Luxembourgish is the medium of instruction, before giving way to German, which in turn gives way to French. (In addition, children learn English and sometimes another European language, usually Spanish or Italian.) Similarly in the country's parliament, debates are conducted in Luxembourgish, draft legislation is drafted in German, while the statute laws are in French.
Malta has two official languages, Maltese and English.[174] Italian is also spoken by a large percentage of the population.
The Netherlands has four official languages. Dutch is the primary language, and West Frisian is recognized as a minority language[148] and spoken by between 300,000 and 700,000 people. West Frisian is mostly spoken in the province of Fryslân, where it is the official first[citation needed] language. Low Saxon is recognized as a regional language in the northeast of the country, and Limburgish is an official regional language in Netherlands Limburg.[148] In Amsterdam, certain services are provided in English; English is official in the Dutch municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. The fourth official language is Papiamento, spoken on Bonaire.[177]
Norway - in six communes of Troms and Finnmark counties, Sami is used officially along Norwegian[178]
In Romania, the official language is Romanian, but significant minority languages are recognized on the local level, with commitments made in respect of use of Bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish and Ukrainian in areas where the share of their speakers is at least 20%.[148] The biggest ethnic minority is the Hungarian community of 1.4 million (6.6%).
ex-Soviet republics and Warsaw Pact countries: Many people fluently speak Russian, especially in Slavic countries within the area of the former USSR (typically in Belarus and Ukraine), along with Moldova, which has a Slavic minority. However, few Polish, Slovak or Czech people speak Russian, despite huge expenditures in the past.
Abkhazia. According to Georgian law, Georgian and Abkhazian are co-official;[194] according to Abkhazian law — Abkhazian and Russian.[195] The elder generation of Abkhazis spoke Georgian, Russian and Abkhazi.
Serbia: There are seven officially used languages in Vojvodina (Serbian, Croatian, Romanian, Ruthenian, Hungarian, Slovak and Czech), and four in central Serbia (Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Bulgarian).[196] The northern autonomous province of Vojvodina has a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi-lingual identity, with a number of mechanisms for the promotion of minority rights; there are more than 26 ethnic groups in the province. The province has six official languages. Some Serbs are recognised as fluent polyglot, many of them being able to speak German, French and English, due to the huge amount of Serbian immigrants in Europe, especially in Austria, Germany and France, whilst English is quite popular due to the large Serbian immigrant community in Australia and Canada.
Slovakia has a Hungarian minority of 520,000 (9.7%). Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, German, Serbian, Hungarian, Polish, Roma, Russian, Ruthenian and Ukrainian languages are recognized as regional or minority languages, with guarantees of their use in municipalities where Slovak citizens belonging to the national minorities form at least 20% of the population.[148]
Slovenia. Italian and Hungarian are recognized as regional or minority languages.[148][197] In the coastal area (Koper, Izola and Piran) Italian is also an official[citation needed] language, in addition to Slovene. In the eastern part of Prekmurje, Hungarian is used as an official language[citation needed] next to Slovene. In the bilingual areas, all children are taught both languages.
In Turkey, the Constitution of Turkey defines Turkish as the only official language of the country (art. 3) and explicitly prohibits educational institutions to teach any language other than Turkish as a mother tongue to Turkish citizens (art. 42). In 2013, the Ministry of Education included Kurdish, Abkhaz, Adyghe and Laz languages to the academic programme of the basic schools as optional classes from the fifth year on.[208]
In 2010, Kurdish municipalities in the southeast decided to begin printing water bills, marriage certificates and construction and road signs, as well as emergency, social and cultural notices in Kurdish alongside Turkish. Friday sermons by Imams began to be delivered in the language, and Esnaf provided Kurdish price tags.[209] Before August 2002, the Turkish government placed severe restrictions on the use of Kurdish language, prohibiting the language in education and broadcast media.[210][211] In March 2006, Turkey allowed private television channels to begin airing programming in Kurdish. However, the Turkish government said that they must avoid showing children's cartoons, or educational programs that teach Kurdish, and could broadcast only for 45 minutes a day or four hours a week.[212] However, most of these restrictions on private Kurdish television channels were relaxed in September 2009.[213]
In Ukraine, Russian, Hungarian and Romanian are granted status of a regional language in certain areas (Language policy in Ukraine). Carpathian Ruthenia, Ukraine, Slovaks living near Uzhhorod speak Ukrainian and Hungarian in addition to their mother tongue, Slovakian. In villages near Mukachevo Germans (Swabian dialect speakers) also speak Hungarian and Ukrainian.
The only national language of the United Kingdom is English, however there are several regional languages recognised:
Wales: 611,000 Welsh speakers, including the majority of the population in parts of north and west Wales.[214] English is widely used. Across Wales, both English and Welsh have equal official status; the priority given to each, for instance on road signs, is determined by each local authority.[215]
Northern Ireland: Ulster Scots, a variety of Scots, is spoken by some in Northern Ireland, but again English is far more commonly used and Ulster Scots is less actively used in media. Irish and Ulster Scots now both have official[specify] status in Northern Ireland as part of the 1998 Belfast Agreement;[216] certain functions are granted to those two languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[148]
Scotland: 58,652 Gaelic speakers, mostly concentrated in the Highlands and the Hebrides, the traditional heartland of Gaelic culture. The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 provides for the status of the Gaelic language as an official language of Scotland commanding equal respect to the English language.[217] Also Scots with approximately 2 to 3 million speakers — a Germanic language closely related to English.
Cornwall: After two centuries of extinction, Cornish was revived in the region in the early 20th century.
Jersey: along with English, use of French for petitioning the parliament is provided for by its Standing Orders.[218]
Oceania
Australia - Australian English is the de facto official language of Australia. Auslan is recognised by the Australian Government and is spoken by many Australian deaf people. Australian Aboriginal languages, of which there are approximately 290-363, have recognition – though only a few are popularly spoken by Australian Indigenous people, including: Wiradjuri, Pitjantjatjara, Kalaw Lagaw Ya, Ngaanyatjarra, Warlpiri and Australian Kriol. Many government departments and agencies, as well as private services, have adopted the use of Mandarin Chinese as a de facto second language, reflecting Australia's large Chinese population and strong trade and diplomatic ties to China.
Fiji — Fijian, English and Hindi (All official)[219] Tongan and Tuvaluan are also spoken.
Kiribati — Kiribati and English (official); Kiribati is the majority language,[220] English language is the prevailing language for constitutional text[221]
Marshall Islands — Marshalese and English (both official)[222]
New Zealand — a small percentage of the population has some reasonable degree of bilingualism in English and Māori, mostly among the Māori themselves; few are fully fluent in Māori.[specify]New Zealand Sign Language has also an official status. English is the main language, with over 96% of the population speaking it fluently. Maori has been recognized as official since 1987.[224]
Cook Islands — Cook Islands Maori and English.[225]
Palau — Palauan traditional languages are the national languages. Palauan and English are the official languages.[226]
Papua New Guinea — Tok Pisin (official), English (official), Hiri Motu (official), some 836 indigenous languages spoken[227]
Rapa Nui (Easter Island) — Rapa Nui along with Chilean Spanish are the 2 co-official languages of the island.
Vanuatu — the national language is Bislama, a creole language or pidgin English and French, which is also an official language alongside English and French.[231] There are also over 110 local vernacular languages distinct to this island archipelago.
^"Archived copy"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 2009-03-20. Retrieved 2009-05-04. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Van Parijs, Philippe, Professor of economic and social ethics at the UCLouvain, Visiting Professor at Harvard University and the KULeuven. "Belgium's new linguistic challenges"(PDF). KVS Express (supplement to newspaper De Morgen) March–April 2007: Article from original source (pdf 4.9 MB) pages 34–36 republished by the Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy – Directorate–general Statistics Belgium. Archived from the original(pdf 0.7 MB) on 2007-06-13. Retrieved 2007-05-05. {{cite journal}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) — The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimations of the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed in detail.
