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Empirical studies have researched the issue of [[backmasking]]. As a group, participants report not being able to understand what is said in backward recordings<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /><ref name="Begg, Needham & Douglas, 1993">{{cite journal|last=Begg|first=Ian|coauthors=Needham, Douglas; Bookbinder, Marc|title=Do backward messages uncsonciously affect listeners? No|journal=Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology|year=1993|volume=47|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1037/h0078772}}</ref> and experimental research has found little evidence that the messages affect participant behavior.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> While listening to forward messages produced priming effects, listening to backward messages caused no such effect in the participants.<ref name="Kriener, Altis & Voss, 2003">{{cite journal|last=Kreiner|first=David S.|coauthors=Altis, Nicole A.; Voss, Carla W.|title=A test of the effect of reverse speech on priming|journal=Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied|year=2003|volume=137|issue=3|pages=224–232|doi=10.1080/00223980309600610}}</ref> Participants were able to discern the gender of the speaker and tell him or her apart from a different speaker.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> Participants are able to distinguish the language of the message with some degree of accuracy.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> But the participants were not able to correctly estimate the number of words in the backwards sentences.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> They were also only slightly better than chance (55% accuracy) at determining whether or not a single word was in the backward sentence.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> These findings indicate that participants were not able to process much of the meaning of the backward message.
Empirical studies have researched the issue of [[backmasking]]. As a group, participants report not being able to understand what is said in backward recordings<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /><ref name="Begg, Needham & Douglas, 1993">{{cite journal|last=Begg|first=Ian|coauthors=Needham, Douglas; Bookbinder, Marc|title=Do backward messages uncsonciously affect listeners? No|journal=Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology|year=1993|volume=47|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1037/h0078772}}</ref> and experimental research has found little evidence that the messages affect participant behavior.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> While listening to forward messages produced priming effects, listening to backward messages caused no such effect in the participants.<ref name="Kriener, Altis & Voss, 2003">{{cite journal|last=Kreiner|first=David S.|coauthors=Altis, Nicole A.; Voss, Carla W.|title=A test of the effect of reverse speech on priming|journal=Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied|year=2003|volume=137|issue=3|pages=224–232|doi=10.1080/00223980309600610}}</ref> Participants were able to discern the gender of the speaker and tell him or her apart from a different speaker.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> Participants are able to distinguish the language of the message with some degree of accuracy.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> But the participants were not able to correctly estimate the number of words in the backwards sentences.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> They were also only slightly better than chance (55% accuracy) at determining whether or not a single word was in the backward sentence.<ref name=Vokey&Read1985 /> These findings indicate that participants were not able to process much of the meaning of the backward message.


===Self-help audiotapes===
===Self-help CD or audiotapes===
Some [[self-help]] [[audiotapes]] claim to work through subliminal messaging. Subliminal self-help audio tapes do not work, or at least not through subliminal messages.<ref name="Greenwald et al. 1991">{{cite journal|last=Greenwald|first=Anthony G.|coauthors=Spangenberg, Eric R.; Pratkanis, Anthony R.; Eskenazi, Jay|title=Double-blind tests of subliminal self-help audiotapes|journal=Psychological Science|year=1991|volume=2|issue=2|pages=119–122|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1991.tb00112.x}}</ref> Subliminal self-help audiotapes produce effects through increasing awareness of the problem or through a person believing they will work.<ref name="Merikle & Skanes, 1992" /><ref name="Greenwald et al. 1991" />


In a study of self-esteem and memory self-help tapes, performance measures increased for both self-esteem and memory tapes, indicating a [[placebo effect]].<ref name="Greenwald et al. 1991" /> However, many participants believed they improved in the measure they thought their self-help tape covered, regardless of whether the tape covered that measure or not.<ref name="Greenwald et al. 1991" />
In a study of self-esteem and memory self-help tapes, performance measures increased for both self-esteem and memory tapes, indicating a [[placebo effect]].<ref name="Greenwald et al. 1991" /> However, many participants believed they improved in the measure they thought their self-help tape covered, regardless of whether the tape covered that measure or not.<ref name="Greenwald et al. 1991" />


Kaser, V.A. "The Effects of an Auditory Subliminal Perception Message Upon the Production of Images and Dreams". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (1986). Subjects listened to an audio subliminal message. The message was mixed with a regular music recording. Another group of subjects simply listened to the regular music recording without the subliminals. Both groups were asked to create a pre-test drawing before and immediately after the music was played as well as a drawing of any dreams they had the previous night. When the drawings were examined, the effects of the subliminal message could be seen. The drawings of the people who listened to the music with subliminal hidden content contained images relating to the suggestions they were listening to, whereas no correlation could be found with the control group. Kaser concluded that "the unconscious/subconscious mind is able to perceive a recorded verbal message that cannot be consciously heard", proving the existence of subliminal perception.<ref>Kaser, V.A. "The Effects of an Auditory Subliminal Perception Message Upon the Production of Images and Dreams". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (1986).</ref>
Similarly, all groups of participants lost weight during a study when only some of the participants were asked to listen to weight loss tapes.<ref name="Merikle & Skanes, 1992">{{cite journal|last=Merikle|first=Philip M.|coauthors=Skanes, Heather E.|title=Subliminal self-help autiotapes: A search for placebo effects|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|year=1992|volume=77|issue=5|pages=772–776|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.77.5.772}}</ref> The study contained a [[control group]] who did not listen to any tape, a [[placebo]] group who listened to a tape unrelated to weight-loss, and an [[experimental group]] who listened to the weight loss audiotape.<ref name="Merikle & Skanes, 1992" /> The results indicate that the effect of audiotapes is due to awareness of weight rather than a placebo effect or subliminal influence.<ref name="Merikle & Skanes, 1992" /> (A placebo effect would be indicated if the two tape groups lost weight while the non-tape group lost less or no weight.) <ref name="Merikle & Skanes, 1992"/>

Möller AT, Kotzé HF, Sieberhagen KJ.Department of Psychology, University of Stellenbosch, RSA. "Comparison of the effects of auditory subliminal stimulation and rational-emotive therapy, separately and combined, on self-concept." The study investigated the effects on self-concept of Rational-Emotive Therapy and auditory subliminal stimulation (separately and in combination) on 141 undergraduate students with self-concept problems. They were randomly assigned to one of four groups receiving either Rational-Emotive Therapy, subliminal stimulation, both, or a placebo treatment. Rational-Emotive Therapy significantly improved scores on all the dependent measures (cognition, self-concept, self-esteem, anxiety), except for behavior. Results for the subliminal stimulation group were similar to those of the placebo treatment except for a significant self-concept improvement and a decline in self-concept related irrational cognitions. The combined treatment yielded results similar to those of Rational-Emotive Therapy, with tentative indications of continued improvement in irrational cognitions and self-concept from posttest to follow-up.<ref>Comparison of the effects of auditory subliminal stimulation and rational-emotive therapy, separately and combined, on self-concept. Möller AT, Kotzé HF, Sieberhagen KJ. Department of Psychology, University of Stellenbosch, RSA.</ref>


==Consumption and television==
==Consumption and television==

Revision as of 16:02, 11 May 2013

Subliminal stimuli (/[invalid input: 'icon']sʌbˈlɪm[invalid input: 'ɨ']nəl/; literally "below threshold"), contrary to supraliminal stimuli or "above threshold", are any sensory stimuli below an individual's threshold for conscious perception.[1] Some research has found that subliminal messages do not produce strong or lasting changes in behavior.[2] However, a recent review of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies shows that subliminal stimuli activate specific regions of the brain despite participants being unaware.[3] Visual stimuli may be quickly flashed before an individual can process them, or flashed and then masked, thereby interrupting the processing. Audio stimuli may be played below audible volumes, masked by other stimuli, or recorded backwards in a process called backmasking.

Effectiveness

The effectiveness of subliminal messaging has been demonstrated to prime individual responses and stimulate mild emotional activity.[4][5] Applications, however, often base themselves on the persuasiveness of the message. The near-consensus among research psychologists is that subliminal messages do not produce a powerful, enduring effect on behavior;[2] and that laboratory research reveals little effect beyond a subtle, fleeting effect on thinking. Research on those claims of lasting effects—such as weight loss, smoking cessation, how music in popular culture may corrupt their listeners, how it may facilitate unconscious wishes in psychotherapy, and how market practitioners may exploit their customers—conclude that there is no effect beyond a placebo[6] or making the person conscious of their current condition.[7] Importantly, research on action priming has shown that subliminal stimuli can trigger only those actions that one plans to perform anyway: an action can be triggered subliminally only if the person already has the specific intention to perform this specific action.[8] The following sections have more information on specific studies in which the effectiveness of subliminal stimuli are investigated.

Method

The threshold in subliminal stimuli research is the level at which the participant is not aware of the stimulus being presented.[9] Researchers determine a threshold for the stimulus that will be used as the subliminal stimulus. That subliminal stimulus is then presented during the study at some point and measures are taken to determine the effects of the stimulus. The way in which studies operationally define thresholds depends on the methods of the particular article. The methodology of the research also varies by the type of subliminal stimulus (auditory or visual) and the dependent variables they measure.

Objective threshold

The objective threshold is found using a forced choice procedure, in which participants must choose which stimulus they saw from options given to them.[9] Participants are flashed a stimulus (e.g. the word "orange") and then given a few choices and asked which one they saw. Participants must choose an answer in this design. The objective threshold is obtained when participants are at chance level of performance in this task.[9] The length of presentation that causes chance performance on the forced choice task is used later in the study for the subliminal stimuli.

Subjective threshold

The subjective threshold is determined by when the participant reports that his or her performance on the forced choice procedure is around chance.[9] The subjective threshold is 30 to 50 ms slower than the objective threshold, demonstrating that participants are able to detect the stimuli is present sooner than their perceived accuracy ratings would indicate.[9] In other words, stimuli presented at a subjective threshold have a longer presentation time than those presented at an objective threshold. When using the objective threshold, primes neither facilitated nor inhibited the recognition of a color.[9] However, the longer the duration of the priming stimuli, the greater effect it had on subsequent responding.[9] These findings indicate that the results of some studies may be due to their definition of below threshold.

Variability in thresholds

Many studies find a single threshold for a participant and [10] A participant’s threshold as defined by the experimenter may change from one moment to the next, depending on many variables.[10] Therefore, the power of the experiment might be compromised.[10] It is possible to estimate the amount of power lost due to variability within the individual.[10]

Visual stimuli

In order to study the effects of subliminal stimuli, researchers will often prime the participants with specific visual stimuli, often images, and determine if those stimuli elicit different responses.[4][11] Subliminal stimuli has mostly been studied in the context of emotion, in particular, researchers have focused a lot of attention to the perception of faces and how subliminal presentation to different facial expression affects emotion.[12][13][14][15] Visual subliminal stimuli has also been used to study emotion eliciting stimuli and simple geometric stimuli.[16][17][18][19] A significant amount of research has been produced throughout the years to demonstrate the effects of subliminal visual stimuli.

Images

Attitudes can develop without being aware of its antecedents.[4] Individuals viewed slides of people performing familiar daily activities after being exposed to either an emotionally positive scene, such as a romantic couple or kittens, or an emotionally negative scene, such as a werewolf or a dead body between each slide. After exposure from which the individuals consciously perceived as a flash of light, the participants gave more positive personality traits to those people whose slides were associated with an emotionally positive scene and vice-versa. Despite the statistical difference, the subliminal messages had less of an impact on judgment than the slide's inherent level of physical attractiveness.[4]

Individuals show right amygdala activity in response to subliminal fear, and greater left amygdala response to supraliminal fear.[11] People were exposed to a subliminal image flashed for 16.7 milliseconds that could signal a potential threat and again with a supraliminal image flashed for half a second. Furthermore supraliminal fear showed more sustained cortical activity, suggesting that subliminal fear may not entail conscious surveillance while supraliminal fear entails higher-order processing.[11]

Faces

Fear stimuli are processed differently compared to other negative emotional stimuli.[12] Participants rated the affect of target faces in an affect appraisal session and the genuineness of target faces in a genuineness appraisal session. This study found that when participants were primed with fear stimuli compared to happy stimuli, the target was rated as more unpleasant and when primed with fear and disgust subliminal stimuli, the participants rated the target as being less genuine.[12] This study also suggests that our emotional involvement in this case also matters because the subliminal fear stimuli that participants were primed with in the genuineness condition could have invoked feelings of a potential threat; therefore the participant may have been suspicious of the targets and rated them as less genuine.[12]

Suspicion of a potential of threat affects emotional responses in regards to pain that is perceived in others.[13] Participants were shown neutral and semantic pain expressions that were previously primed with their own or others' faces in one experiment. In a second experiment, pictures with pain and neutral scenarios were used in a categorization task. The pictures were primed with their own or others' faces similar to experiment one. Results indicate that an early and late cortical response between pain and no-pain were modulated only when the participants experienced subliminal stimuli of others' faces.[13] These results further support the claim that when negative subliminal stimuli is experienced, the feeling of potential threat arises.[13]

Subliminally primed negative emotions elicit emotional responses that demonstrate negative and defensive effects.[14] Angry and sad faces were used as primes and were compared based on the effects that each emotion would have on agency appraisals. When exposed to subliminal angry faces participants appraised negative events as caused by others, and those exposed to subliminal sad faces appraised the same events as caused by situational factors.[14] These findings supply evidence for subliminal emotion-specific cognitive effects that are not just valence-based effect.[14]

Priming individuals with images flashed for an instant affects experiences of self.[15] Images of a graduate student's faculty adviser's scowling face or an approving face of another person were presented before the graduate students evaluated their own research ideas. Participants who were Catholic were asked to evaluate themselves after being flashed a disapproving face of the Pope or another unfamiliar face. The self-ratings were lower after the presentation of a disapproving face with personal significance; however there was no effect if the disapproving face was unfamiliar.[15]

Emotion eliciting stimuli

A subliminal sexual stimulus has a different effect on men compared to women.[16] Men and women were subliminally exposed to either a sexual or a neutral picture, and their sexual arousal was recorded. Researchers examined the accessibility of sex-related thoughts after following the same procedure with either a pictorial judgment task or lexical decision task. The results revealed that the subliminal sexual stimuli did not have an effect on men, but for women, lower levels of sexual arousal were reported.[16] However, in conditions related to accessibility of sex-related thoughts, the subliminal sexual stimuli led to higher accessibility for both men and women.[16]

Subliminal stimuli have elicit significant emotional changes, but these changes are not valuable for a therapeutic effect.[17] Spider-fearful and non-fearful undergraduates experienced either a positive, negative, or neutral subliminal prime followed immediately by a picture of a spider or a snake. Using visual analogue scales, the participants rated the affective quality of the picture. No evidence was found to support that the unpleasantness of the pictures can be modulated by subliminal priming.[17] In fact, the non-fearful participants rated the spiders as more frightening after being primed with a negative stimuli, however, for the fearful participants, this effect was not found.[17]

Simple geometric stimuli

Laboratory research on unconscious perception often employs simple stimuli (e.g., geometric shapes or colors) whose visibility is controlled by visual masking.[18] Masked stimuli are then used to prime the processing of subsequently presented target stimuli. For instance, in the Response Priming paradigm, participants have to respond to a target stimulus (e.g., by identifying whether it is a diamond or a square) which is immediately preceded by a masked priming stimulus (also a diamond or a square). The prime has large effects on responses to the target; it speeds responses when it is consistent with the target, and slows responses when it is inconsistent. Response priming effects can be dissociated from visual awareness of the prime, such as when prime identification performance is at chance, or when priming effects increase despite decreases in prime visibility.[18]

The presentation of geometric figures as subliminal stimuli can result in below threshold discriminations.[19] The geometric figures were presented on slides of a tachistoscope followed by a supraliminal shock for a given slide every time it appeared. The shock was administered after a five second interval. Electrical skin changes of the participants that occurred before the reinforcement (shock) or non-reinforcement were recorded. The findings indicate that the proportion of electrical skin changes that occurred following subliminal visual stimuli was significantly greater than expected.[19] In contrast, the proportion of electrical skin changes that occurred in response to the stimuli which were not reinforced was significantly less. As a whole, participants were able to make below threshold discriminations.[19]

Auditory stimuli

Auditory masking

One method for creating subliminal auditory stimuli is called masking. This method involves hiding the target auditory stimulus in some way. Auditory subliminal stimuli are shown to have some effect on the participant, but not a large one.[20] For example, one study used other speechlike sounds to cover up the target words.[20] The study found evidence of priming in the absence of awareness of the stimuli. But the effects of these subliminal stimuli were only seen in one of the outcome measures of priming, while the effects of conscious stimuli were seen in multiple outcome measures.[20]

Backmasking

Main article: Backmasking
The manpage for the popular sound program SoX. The description of the "reverse" option humorously says "Included for finding satanic subliminals".

Backmasking is a recording technique in which a sound or message is recorded backward onto a track that is meant to be played forward.[21]

During the 1970s, media reports raised a series of concerns of its impact on listeners,[21] stating that satanic messages were calling its listeners to commit suicide, murder, abuse drugs, or engage in sex—which were all rising at the time.[22][23] However, both of these studies relating heavy metal music to negative outcomes were correlational in nature. In other words, they did not have random assignment into groups, but rather the groups were pre-selected by participants. The problem with making assumptions based on this type of design is that the two related variables (e.g. suicide and listening to heavy metal music) may not have a causal relationship. So, although the studies show a relationship between certain types of music and suicide, these increases may not be caused by listening to heavy metal music.

Empirical studies have researched the issue of backmasking. As a group, participants report not being able to understand what is said in backward recordings[21][24] and experimental research has found little evidence that the messages affect participant behavior.[21] While listening to forward messages produced priming effects, listening to backward messages caused no such effect in the participants.[25] Participants were able to discern the gender of the speaker and tell him or her apart from a different speaker.[21] Participants are able to distinguish the language of the message with some degree of accuracy.[21] But the participants were not able to correctly estimate the number of words in the backwards sentences.[21] They were also only slightly better than chance (55% accuracy) at determining whether or not a single word was in the backward sentence.[21] These findings indicate that participants were not able to process much of the meaning of the backward message.

Self-help CD or audiotapes

In a study of self-esteem and memory self-help tapes, performance measures increased for both self-esteem and memory tapes, indicating a placebo effect.[26] However, many participants believed they improved in the measure they thought their self-help tape covered, regardless of whether the tape covered that measure or not.[26]

Kaser, V.A. "The Effects of an Auditory Subliminal Perception Message Upon the Production of Images and Dreams". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (1986). Subjects listened to an audio subliminal message. The message was mixed with a regular music recording. Another group of subjects simply listened to the regular music recording without the subliminals. Both groups were asked to create a pre-test drawing before and immediately after the music was played as well as a drawing of any dreams they had the previous night. When the drawings were examined, the effects of the subliminal message could be seen. The drawings of the people who listened to the music with subliminal hidden content contained images relating to the suggestions they were listening to, whereas no correlation could be found with the control group. Kaser concluded that "the unconscious/subconscious mind is able to perceive a recorded verbal message that cannot be consciously heard", proving the existence of subliminal perception.[27]

Möller AT, Kotzé HF, Sieberhagen KJ.Department of Psychology, University of Stellenbosch, RSA. "Comparison of the effects of auditory subliminal stimulation and rational-emotive therapy, separately and combined, on self-concept." The study investigated the effects on self-concept of Rational-Emotive Therapy and auditory subliminal stimulation (separately and in combination) on 141 undergraduate students with self-concept problems. They were randomly assigned to one of four groups receiving either Rational-Emotive Therapy, subliminal stimulation, both, or a placebo treatment. Rational-Emotive Therapy significantly improved scores on all the dependent measures (cognition, self-concept, self-esteem, anxiety), except for behavior. Results for the subliminal stimulation group were similar to those of the placebo treatment except for a significant self-concept improvement and a decline in self-concept related irrational cognitions. The combined treatment yielded results similar to those of Rational-Emotive Therapy, with tentative indications of continued improvement in irrational cognitions and self-concept from posttest to follow-up.[28]

Consumption and television

Some studies have looked at the efficacy of subliminal messaging in television. Subliminal messages produce only one-tenth of the effects of detected messages and the findings related the effects of subliminal messaging were relatively ambiguous.[29] Also, participants’ ratings of positive response to commercials are not affected by subliminal messages in the commercials.[29]

Karremans suggests that subliminal messages have an effect when the messages are goal-relevant.[30] Subliminally priming a brand name of a drink (Lipton Ice) made those who were thirsty want the Lipton Ice. However, those who were not thirsty were not influenced by the subliminal messages.[30] Karremans did a study assessing whether subliminal priming of a brand name of a drink would affect a person's choice of drink, and whether this effect is caused by the individual's feelings of being thirsty.[30] In another study, participant's ratings of thirst were higher after viewing an episode of "The Simpsons" that contained single frames of the word "thirsty" or of a picture of a Coca-Cola ® can.[31] Some studies have shown greater effects of subliminal messaging with as high as 80% of participants showing a preference for a particular rum when subliminally primed by the name placed in an ad backward.[32]

Many authors have continued to argue for the effectiveness of subliminal cues in changing consumption behavior, citing environmental cues as a main culprit of behavior change.[33] Authors who support this line of reasoning cite findings such as the research that showed slow-paced music in a supermarket was associated with more sales and customers moving at a slower pace.[34] Findings such as these support the notion that external cues can affect behavior, although the stimulus may not fit into a strict definition of subliminal stimuli because although the music may not be attended to or consciously affecting the customers, they are certainly able to perceive it.

Real-world applications

Academics

Long-term effects of subliminal priming can affect academic performance.[35] Participants were subliminally primed with either words related or unrelated to intelligence 1 to 4 days before actual course midterms. The participants who were primed with words related to intelligence had increased performance on their midterms compared to the participants who received neutral primes.[35] These results suggest that subliminal priming may have long-term effects on behavior, especially academic performance.[35]Parker, K.A. "Effects of Subliminal Symbiotic Stimulation on Academic Performance: Further Evidence on the Adaptation-Enhancing Effects of Oneness Fantasies." Journal of Counseling Psychology (1982): 60 college students on a summer law course for 6 weeks received subliminal messages before 3 of their 5 lectures per week, as also before and after a brief minute counseling session. The subjects exposed to subliminal messaging achieved significantly higher grades than the others, which were consistent with other earlier studies.[36]


Smoking

The psychological processes that are used to assess information are considered to occur below threshold and have an impact on behavior (drug use, smoking).[37] Because the psychological processes that are tapped into are unavailable to conscious introspection, tobacco dependence could be partially explained by cognitive processing biases towards cues that are smoking-related. The processing of smoking-related and affective stimuli that were presented subliminally to nonsmokers, smokers deprived from smoking for twelve hours, and nondeprived smokers. They were presented with a pictorial subliminal prime (smoking-related objects, neutral office supplies, and happy, angry, and neutral faces) followed by a mask, and then the target. The task was to identify the target as quickly as possible. The results indicate that the deprived smokers demonstrated a processing bias for smoking-related stimuli, whereas the nonsmokers and nondeprived smokers did not.[37] The deprivation of tobacco seemed to increase the subliminal processing of smoking-related stimuli for smokers, but did not influence the subliminal processing of affective stimuli.[37]

Boost Learning Capacity

Cook, H., Ph.D. "Effects of Subliminal Symbiotic Gratification and the Magic of Believing on Achievement." Psychoanalytic Psychology (1985): University students were split into groups and exposed to either to a subliminal message, or a control message immediately after class over a period of 12 sessions of 4 millisecond duration messages. Students who had received the subliminal messages ended up performing better in their end of year exams than students who received the control message. The researchers concluded that subliminally stimulating students to feel better about themselves enabled them to learn more efficiently.[38]

References

  1. ^ Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1992). "Is the unconscious smart or dumb?". American Psychologist. 47 (6): 761–765. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.6.761. PMID 1616173. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ^ a b Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1002/mar.4220050405, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1002/mar.4220050405 instead.
  3. ^ Brooks, S.J. (2012). "Exposure to subliminal arousing stimuli induces robust activation in the amygdala, hippocampus, anterior cingulate, insular cortex and primary visual cortex: a systematic meta-analysis of fMRI studies". NeuroImage. 59 (3): 2962–2973. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.077. PMID 22001789. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ a b c d Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1177/0146167292182006, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1177/0146167292182006 instead.
  5. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00086, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1111/1467-9280.00086 instead.
  6. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1002/mar.4220050403, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1002/mar.4220050403 instead.
  7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Merikle & Skanes, 1992 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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  9. ^ a b c d e f g Chessman, Jim (1984). "Priming with and without awareness". Perception and Psychophysics. 36 (4): 387–395. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ a b c d Miller, Jeff (1991). "Threshold variability in subliminal perception experiments: Fixed threshold estimates reduce power to detect subliminal effects". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 17 (3): 841–851. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.17.3.841.
  11. ^ a b c Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1002/hbm.20208, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1002/hbm.20208 instead.
  12. ^ a b c d Lee, Su Young (2011). "Differential priming effect for subliminal fear and disgust facial expressions". Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics. 2. 73: 473–481. doi:10.3758/s13414-010-0032-3. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ a b c d Ibáñez, Agustin (29). "Subliminal presentation of other faces (but not own face) primes behavioral and evoked cortical processing of empathy for pain". Brain Research. 1398: 72–85. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2011.05.014. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  14. ^ a b c d Yang, Zixu (2010). "The Effects of Subliminal Anger and Sadness Primes on Agency Appraisals". Emotion. 10 (6): 915–922. doi:10.1037/a0020306. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ a b c Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/0022-1031(90)90068-W, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/0022-1031(90)90068-W instead.
  16. ^ a b c d Gillath, Omri (2007). "Does subliminal exposure to sexual stimuli have the same effects on men women?". Journal of Sex Research. 2. 44: 111–121. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. ^ a b c d Mayer, Birgit (10). "Do subliminal priming effects on emotion have clinical potential?". Anxiety, Stress, and Coping. 12: 217–229. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. ^ a b c Vorberg, D., Mattler, U., Heinecke, A., Schmidt, T., & Schwarzbach, J.: Different time courses for visual perception and action priming. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, Nr. 100, 2003, p. 6275-6280.
  19. ^ a b c d Taylor, Frank W. R. (1953). "The discrimination of subliminal visual stimuli". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1. 7: 12–20. doi:10.1037/h0083570. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  20. ^ a b c Kouider, Sid (2005). "Subliminal Speech Priming". Psychological Science. 16 (8): 617–625. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01584.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 4083611, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=4083611 instead.
  22. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1007/BF01537363, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1007/BF01537363 instead.
  23. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 8203005, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=8203005 instead.
  24. ^ Begg, Ian (1993). "Do backward messages uncsonciously affect listeners? No". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 47 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1037/h0078772. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ Kreiner, David S. (2003). "A test of the effect of reverse speech on priming". Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied. 137 (3): 224–232. doi:10.1080/00223980309600610. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Greenwald et al. 1991 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  27. ^ Kaser, V.A. "The Effects of an Auditory Subliminal Perception Message Upon the Production of Images and Dreams". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (1986).
  28. ^ Comparison of the effects of auditory subliminal stimulation and rational-emotive therapy, separately and combined, on self-concept. Möller AT, Kotzé HF, Sieberhagen KJ. Department of Psychology, University of Stellenbosch, RSA.
  29. ^ a b Smith, Kirk H. (1994). "Effectiveness of subliminal messages in television commercials: Two experiments". Journal of Applied Psychology. 79 (6): 866–874. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.79.6.866. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ a b c Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.002, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.002 instead.
  31. ^ Cooper, Joel (2002). "Subliminal motivation: A story revisited". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 32 (11): 2213–2227. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb01860.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ Key, W.B. (1973), Subliminal seduction: Ad media's manipulation of a not so innocent America, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-859090-7
  33. ^ Dijksterhuis, Ap (2005). "The unconscious consumer: Effects of environment on consumer behavior". Journal of Consumer Psychology. 15 (3): 193–202. doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp1503_3. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ Milliman, Ronald E. (1982). "Using background music to effect the behavior of supermarket shoppers". Journal of Marketing. 46 (3): 86–91. doi:10.2307/1251706.
  35. ^ a b c Lowery, Brian S. (2007). "Long-term Effects of Subliminal Priming on Academic Performance". Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 2. 29: 151–157. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Parker, K.A. "Effects of Subliminal Symbiotic Stimulation on Academic Performance: Further Evidence on the Adaptation-Enhancing Effects of Oneness Fantasies." Journal of Counseling Psychology (1982)
  37. ^ a b c Leventhal, Adam M. (2008). "Subliminal Processing of Smoking-Related and Affective Stimuli in Tobacco Addiction". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 4. 16: 301–312. doi:10.1037/a0012640. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ Cook, H., Ph.D. "Effects of Subliminal Symbiotic Gratification and the Magic of Believing on Achievement." Psychoanalytic Psychology (1985)

Further reading

  • Boese, Alex (2006), Hippo Eats Dwarf: A Field Guide to Hoaxes and Other B.S., Orlando: Harcourt, pp. 193–195, ISBN 0-15-603083-7
  • Dixon, Norman F. (1971), Subliminal Perception: The nature of a controversy, New York: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-094147-5
  • Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.6.766, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.47.6.766 instead.
  • Holender, D. (1986), "Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal", Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9 (1): 1–23
  • Merikle, P. M.; Daneman, M. (1998), "Psychological Investigations of Unconscious Perception", Journal of Consciousness Studies, 5 (1): 5–18
  • Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/422036a, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/422036a instead.
  • United States Senate, Ninety-ninth Congress, First Session on Contents of Music and the Lyrics of Records (September 19, 1985), Record Labeling: Hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/35101601, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/35101601 instead.
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