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== History ==
== History ==
{{main|History of Peru}}
{{main|History of Peru}}
The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 years [[Common Era|BCE]].<ref>Tom Dillehay et al, "The first settlers", p. 20.</ref> The oldest known complex society in Peru, the [[Norte Chico civilization]], flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.<ref>Jonathan Haas et al, "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru", p. 1021.</ref> These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as [[Cupisnique]], [[Chavín culture|Chavin]], [[Paracas culture|Paracas]], [[Mochica Culture|Mochica]], [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], [[Huari Culture|Wari]], and [[Chimú culture|Chimú]]. In the 15th century, the [[Incas]] emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the [[Inca empire|largest empire]] in [[pre-Columbian America]].<ref>Terence D'Altroy, ''The Incas'', pp. 2–3.</ref> Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as [[irrigation]] and [[Terrace (agriculture)|terracing]]; [[camelid]] husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on [[reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]] and [[redistribution (cultural anthropology)|redistribution]] because these societies had no notion of market or money.<ref>Enrique Mayer, ''The articulated peasant'', pp. 47–68.</ref>


The oldest archaeological remains are after the first [[Settlement of the Americas|settlement of America]]. Correspond to XIII millennium B.C., dating found in the [[Guitarrero Cave|Cave of Guitarrero]] ([[Ancash Region|Ancash]]), in the north-central highlands of the country.<ref> Lynch, Thomas F, R. Gillespie, John A. J. Gowlett y R. E. M. Hedges. "[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/229/4716/864 Chronology of Guitarrero Cave, Peru.]" ''[[Science]]'', August 1985</ref>
In December 1532, a party of ''[[conquistador]]s'' led by [[Francisco Pizarro]] defeated and captured Inca Emperor [[Atahualpa]]. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.<ref>''Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias'', vol. II, pp. 12–13.</ref> Viceroy [[Francisco de Toledo]] reorganized the country in the 1570s, with silver mining as its main economic activity and [[Amerindian]] [[Mita (Inca)|forced labor]] as its primary workforce.<ref>Peter Bakewell, ''Miners of the Red Mountain'', p. 181.</ref>


At the end of the last [[ice age]], the first settlers began the slow process of domestication of the local [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] (see: [[Neolithic Revolution]]) and to gather in [[tribe]]s and [[village]]s to form eventually [[ayllu]]s. It found traces of the origin of American agriculture in the basin of Zaña River in [[Nanchoc]] ([[Cajamarca Region|Cajamarca]]) 9000 years ago (7,600 B.C.).<ref>Dolores R. Pipernoa and Tom D. Dillehay (2008). [http://www.pnas.org/content/105/50/19622.full "Starch grains on human teeth reveal early broad crop diet in northern Peru"] in PNAS December 16, 2008 vol. 105 no. 50 19622-19627</ref>
Peruvian [[bullion]] provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.<ref>Margarita Suárez, ''Desafíos transatlánticos'', pp. 252–253.</ref> However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.<ref>Kenneth Andrien, ''Crisis and decline'', pp. 200–202.</ref> In response, the Crown enacted the [[Bourbon Reforms]], a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty.<ref>Mark Burkholder, ''From impotence to authority'', pp. 83–87.</ref> The new laws provoked [[Túpac Amaru II]]'s rebellion and other revolts, all of which were quashed.<ref>Scarlett O'Phelan, ''Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru'', p. 276.</ref>


===Ancient Peru===
In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by [[South American wars of independence|wars of independence]], Peru remained a [[Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)|royalist]] stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, [[independence of Peru|independence]] was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of [[José de San Martín]] and [[Simón Bolívar]].<ref>Timothy Anna, ''The fall of the royal government in Peru'', pp. 237–238.</ref> During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.<ref>Charles Walker, ''Smoldering ashes'', pp. 124–125.</ref>
{{main|Ancient Peru}}
[[File:Nazca monkey.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Nazca Lines]]: Monkey figure.]]
[[File:PeruCaral01b.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Caral|Pyramids of Caral]] (III millennium BC.), Site of the first civilization of the [[american continent]].<ref>[http://mundoviajero.wordpress.com/2009/02/09/caral-la-primera-civilizacion-de-america] Caral, the first civilization of America</ref>]]


By the IV millennium B.C., the village communities of the coast began a hierarchy that overlapped the tribal organization. Then came the first signs of organized architecture, with public and ceremonial buildings. At the beginning of the III millennium B.C., emerged in the complex of [[Caral]], the oldest [[civilization]] of the Americas,<ref>[http://www.caralperu.gob.pe/ Proyecto Especial Arqueológico Caral-Supe/INC]</ref> centre of an extensive trade network that stretched from [[Ecuador]] to the jungle of Peru, which was involved with extensive production of cotton ([[Gossypium barbadense]]) and linked with a ceremonial worship leadership. Caral is contemporary to the civilizations of [[China]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Indus Valley Civilization|India]] and [[Mesopotamia]]; respect of an area which can be considered as the [[Cradle of civilization|cradle of civilization]] in the world because of its age (c. 5000 years).
Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a [[Congress of Panama|Latin American Confederation]] floundered and a [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation|union with Bolivia]] proved ephemeral.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, ''Between silver and guano'', p. 12.</ref> Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed [[Guano Era (Peru)|a period of stability]] under the presidency of [[Ramón Castilla]] through increased state revenues from [[guano]] exports.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, ''Imagining development'', pp. 5–6.</ref> However, by the 1870s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, ''Imagining development'', p. 9.</ref>


Subsequently, it spread along the coast the [[Cupisnique]] culture whose ceremonial centers would peak until his idleness for the birth of [[Kuntur Wasi]] and [[Chavín de Huantar]].<ref name=Izumi>Izumi Shimada. Pampa Grande and the Mochica culture [http://books.google.com/books?id=vHfn9PpOxdIC&pg=PA63&lpg=PA63&dq=chongoyape+cupisnique&source=bl&ots=XrwThYr4em&sig=472-ArkPGIiScTBZwUZSUoD00Ng&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA61,M1] |year=1994 |editorial=University of Texas Press. isbn=9780292776746 |pages=61</ref> Later this period, the [[Chavín culture]] exerted enormous influence over the other until his decline.
⚫
[[File:La Independencia del Perú.jpg|thumb|left|Independence was proclaimed by [[José de San Martín]] in 1821.]]
Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 [[War of the Pacific]], ceding the provinces of [[Arica Province|Arica]] and [[Tarapacá Region|Tarapacá]] in the treaties of [[Treaty of Ancón|Ancón]] and [[Treaty of Lima|Lima]]. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the [[Civilista Party]], which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of [[Augusto B. Leguía]].<ref>Ulrich Mücke, ''Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru'', pp. 193–194.</ref> The [[Great Depression]] caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]] (APRA).<ref>Peter Klarén, ''Peru'', pp. 262–276.</ref> The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.<ref>David Palmer, ''Peru: the authoritarian tradition'', p. 93.</ref>


The [[petroglyphs]] and channels of [[Cumbemayo]], half an hour from the city of [[Cajamarca]], constitute a [[masterpiece]] of [[hydraulic engineering]]. These blocks carved by running water on a gentle slope, which includes tunnels and zigzag bends to slow the flow. The stone blocks placed at the top of the route have various levels cut and polished. One of these blocks, truncated cone-shaped, is traditionally known as "sacrificial stone".
In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]], staged a coup against president [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry|Fernando Belaunde]]. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.<ref>George Philip, ''The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals'', pp. 163–165.</ref> In 1975, General [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez]] forcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.<ref>Daniel Schydlowsky and Juan Julio Wicht, "Anatomy of an economic failure", pp. 106–107.</ref> During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and [[Internal conflict in Peru|massive political violence]].<ref>Peter Klarén, ''Peru'', pp. 406–407.</ref> Under the presidency of [[Alberto Fujimori]] (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial [[Peruvian general election, 2000|2000 elections]].<ref>BBC News, ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1031752.stm Fujimori: Decline and fall]''. Retrieved July 21, 2007.</ref> Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth.<ref>The Economist, ''[http://www.economist.com/research/backgrounders/displayBackgrounder.cfm?bg=709221 Peru]''. Retrieved July 18, 2007.</ref>

[[File:Peru Machu Picchu Sunrise.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Machu Picchu]], icon of [[Inca architecture]].]]
Within the [[Moche]] culture at north and [[Nazca culture|Nazca]] culture at south, developed the first states with permanent militia, linked to pieces of top rated ceramic art of ancient Peru. In the far south, meanwhile, emerges [[Tiahuanaco]] as dominant culture of [[Altiplano]]. Later, the [[Wari culture|Wari]] culture developed the classical model of the Andean State with the rise of cities of imperial court, model that spread to north to the 8th century. From the 9th century, after the abandonment of Wari, erected new regional centralizers States along the Andes, such as [[Sican culture|Lambayeque]], [[Chimú culture|Chimú]] and [[Chincha people|Chincha]], a period known as the Late Intermediate or regional states.


[[File:Kuelap.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Image of the interior of the fortress of [[Kuelap]].]]
Of these domains include that of the [[Inca]]s, that by the 15th century annexed all Andean towns between the rivers [[Maule River|Maule]] and [[Ancasmayo River|Ancasmayo]], with an area of ​​nearly 3 million km², today located in the territories of southern [[Colombia]], the west of [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], northern [[Chile]] and northwestern [[Argentina]], forming what is known as the [[Inca Empire]]. Its capital was [[Cusco]], located in the southern [[highlands]] of Peru. In addition to its military strength, excelled in [[architecture]], with magnificent structures as the citadel of [[Machu Picchu]].

In 1532, the [[Inca Empire]] or Tahuantisuyo succumbed to [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Spanish conquest]] conducted [[Francisco Pizarro]]. The [[conquistador|conqueror]] found the [[Empire]] weakened by a civil war that began in 1529 between [[Huáscar]] and [[Atahualpa]], the two brothers imperial pretenders. In November 1532, Pizarro captured [[Atahualpa]], and in July 1533, had him [[executed]] on charges of ordering the [[kill]]ing of his brother [[Huáscar]]. Subduing the opposition, relatively weak of some Inca generals, began the Spanish rule that established on the territory of the former [[Inca Empire]], the most powerful [[viceroyalty]] that [[Spain]] had in [[overseas]].

===Conquest and colonial period===
[[File:Atawallpa Pizarro tinkuy.jpg|thumb|200px|right||Engraving [[Battle of Cajamarca|Capture of Atahualpa]] in [[Cajamarca]] by [[Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala|Guaman Poma]].]]
{{See also|Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Viceroyalty of Peru}}

A mid-16th century, the Inca civil war happened, after the sudden death of [[Huayna Capac]] and his heir [[Ninan Cuyochi]] (possibly by the epidemic of [[smallpox]] brought by the Europeans) faced his children [[Huáscar]] and [[Atahualpa]], the latter defeated Huáscar and destroyed the organization of Cusco, besides killing much of the Inca royal family, after that headed north to Tumibamba where in Cajamarca he was ambushed and captured by the army of [[Francisco Pizarro]], which pleased the family of Huáscar and many Cuscoans, Pizarro then would join thousands of men from ethnic opposition to the Incas, and was received with honors Pizarro in Cusco and the occupied city without a battle, then Pizarro founded [[Lima]]. Soon [[Civil wars among the conquerors of Peru|civil war]] arose between the conquerors by the distribution of the new land [[encomienda]]s. In 1542, it established the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], which initially covered ''de iure'' a geographical point from what is now [[Panama]] to the southern tip of the continent. The new order led another uprising known as the revolt of the encomenderos. In the 1570s, Viceroy [[Francisco de Toledo]] reorganized the territory of pacifying the country, culminating with the Inca resistance.

[[File:Francisco-Pizarro-um1540.png|thumb|left|150px|The conquistador [[Francisco Pizarro]].]]
The [[Spanish Empire]] meant for Peru profound social and economic transformation. [[Mercantilist]] system was implemented, supported by mining of [[gold]] and [[silver]], primarily, of [[Potosí]], the commercial monopoly and the exploitation of indigenous labor under the forced labor or [[Mita (Inca)|mita]].

From the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the collection of the Crown was slowly undermined by the decline of mining and consequent economic diversification, as well as commercial smuggling. In this context, the [[Bourbon Reforms|Bourbon reforms]] were imposed, which detracted from the elite Limaian political power and affected economically internal trade, which led to several uprisings of which the most impact was the rebellion of the descendant of the Incas [[Túpac Amaru II]]; the latter came to threaten the colonial government in [[Cusco]], but by making racial dyes indiscriminately against [[Criollo people|Criollos]], precipitated their defeat. After the death of José Gabriel Túpac Amaru, the indigenous culture was fiercely repressed by Bourbon authorities and had delayed the emancipatory projects given the fear of further riots against peninsular and Criollo elite.

No doubt that [[Cusco]] was the chief city of the whole [[Inca Empire]]. When taking it the Spanish, the Inca resistance dwindled significantly, not only because there was the whole organization of the empire, but by the meaning it had for Inca armies see their capital taken and dominated by the Spanish.{{quote
| There are in this city many others quarters and greatness, passing through both sides two rivers coming a mile (5.5 kilometers) upstream of and from there until these reach the city and two miles (11 kilometers) below, all go tiled so that water runs clean and clear and although grow not overflow, have their bridges so it enters the city...}}

In the 18th century, were conducted several Indian uprisings in reaction to the abuses of the [[Spanish]] [[Corregidor (position)|corregidors]], lack of justice, delay claims, and improper collection of taxes, which include the likes of [[Juan Santos Atahualpa]], [[Túpac Amaru II]] y [[Túpac Katari]].

The [[rebellion of Túpac Amaru II]] was lifting greater social and political impact of this era. On November 4, 1780, [[Túpac Amaru II]] managed to prepare a revolutionary movement that threatened the power of the [[Monarchy of Spain|monarchy]]. That night he took prisoner the corregidor Antonio Arriaga, who forced him to hand over the royal funds and then had him executed as punishment for his cruelties.<ref>{{[http://www.elortiba.org/pdf/Lapolla_Tupac_Amaru.pdf] Túpac Amaru II: Father of American Emancipation formato=PDF autor=Alberto Lapolla</ref> then managed to organize a considerable army of indigenous; in [[Cusco]] the nearby corregidors gathered and also organized an army that went in search of [[Túpac Amaru II]]. Both armies met in the village of Sangarará, waged a brutal and bloody battle that Tupac Amaru II was victorious.<ref>[http://www.drep.gob.pe/tupac-amaru-ii.pdf] Túpac Amaru II. format=PDF.autor=Dirección Regional de Educación Piura</ref> In Cuzco, the May 18, 1781, is given a trial and sentenced to death along with others leaders of the rebellion. First they tried to dismember him, where his limbs were tied to four horses, but failing, he was sent to [[Decapitation|behead]].

Indian uprisings were controlled by the [[Spanish monarchy]], but they influenced future independence struggles.

===Independence===
{{Main|Peruvian War of Independence}}
[[File:Acta de la Indepencia del Perù.jpg|thumb|Act of Independence of Peru.]]

In the 19th century came [[Freedom Expedition of Perú|Liberating South Stream]] led by Argentine General [[[José de San Martín]] to wean mission to Peru.
On August 20, 1820, departed [[Valparaíso]], [[Chile]], bound for Peru, reaching the Bay of Paracas after two weeks at sea. There, after a few days, [[Conferences in Miraflores|talks in Miraflores]] (September 25) between representatives of [[José de San Martín|San Martín]] and the Viceroy [[Joaquín de la Pezuela, 1st Marquis of Viluma|Pezuela]] to seek independence peacefully, but these failed. General San Martin subsequently contacted the mayor of Trujillo [[José Bernardo de Tagle]], who had come to the city the same year, in a letter dated November 20, 1820, inviting him to join the cause of emancipation.<ref>Juan Castañeda Murga. The dawn of the Republic in the Freedom. pag. 13. year 2009. editorial=Cobol Asesores Gráficos</ref> Bernardo de Tagle joined the patriot cause proclaimed the [[Independence of Trujillo]] on 29 December 1820.

The Viceroy [[Joaquín de la Pezuela, 1st Marquis of Viluma|Pezuela]] resigned and was appointed as new Viceroy the General [[José de la Serna e Hinojosa|José de la Serna]]. La Serna proposed to San Martín new peaceful arrangements in the Conferences of Punchauca, which did not giving reach any agreement.

⚫
[[File:La Independencia del Perú.jpg|thumb|Juan Lepiani: ''[[José de San Martín|San Martín]] proclaimed the independence of Peru'' (Rome, 1904)
<br /><small>Lima, Pinacoteca [[Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia del Perú|MNAAHP]]</small>.]]
In this situation, the viceroy decided to evacuate [[Lima]] for fear of being exposed to attack of San Martín, who managed to occupy the city with an army of patriots.

The acts of declaration, proclamation and oath of independence of Peru was held in [[Lima]], between the months of July-August 1821. The first, consisting of the signing of the document containing the declaration of independence, was made by the council of Lima on July 15 of that year.<ref>[http://190.81.187.75/biblioteca/biblioteca_municipal_archivo_historico/biblioteca_municipal_virtual/biblioteca_virtual/Descarga/emancipacion.pdf The municipality of Lima and emancipation]</ref> The proclamation was held on July 28, 1821, when the leader of [[Freedom Expedition of Perú|Liberating Expedition of Peru]], the [[Argentine]] General [[José de San Martín]] proclaimed the [[Peruvian War of Independence|independence]] from four public squares and established a new state, the [[Peru|Republic of Peru]], whose name slogan tacit declaration of independence of the country.<ref>[http://www.ucsm.edu.pe/arequipa/peru2.htm Act of Independence of Peru]</ref> As of September 29 , was the swearing by the people, organized in its various institutions. The first [[Congress of the Republic of Peru|Peruvian Congress]] met on 20 September 1822.<ref>[http://www.congreso.gob.pe/ntley/Imagenes/LeyesXIX/1822001.pdf Installation of the first Peruvian Congress]</ref> Later, in 1824, the Venezuelan general [[Simón Bolívar]] after his victories at the battles of [[Battle of Junín|Junín]] and Battle of [[Ayacucho|Ayacucho]], on August 6 and 9 December 1824 respectively, accepted the surrender of [[Royalist (Spanish American Independence)|royalist]] troops settled in the southern highlands, ending with the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]].

{{See also|Peruvian War of Independence|Chincha Islands War|Spanish American wars of independence}}

===Republican Era===
[[File:Jose de la Riva Aguero y Sanchez Boquete.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[José de la Riva Agüero]], first President of the Republic of Peru.]]
[[File:Congreso 1822.jpg|220px|thumb|left|The First [[Constituent Congress of Peru, 1822|Constitutional Congress of Peru]] in 1822.]]

Once proclaimed the independence, [[José de San Martín|San Martín]], assumed command of the military political free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to the decree issued on August 3, 1821.<ref>[http://www.congreso.gob.pe/museo/mensajes/a-Mensaje-1821-3.pdf Decree of General José de San Martín assuming the political and military high command with the title of Protector.] format=PDF. August 3, 1821</ref> The Protectorate works contributed to the creation of the [[National Library of Peru|national library]] (a for knowledge), the approval of the [[National Anthem of Peru|national anthem]], and the abolition of the [[Mita (Inca)|mita]] (for Indians).

The December 27, 1821, [[José de San Martín|San Martín]] created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río; Ministry of War and Navy, Dr. Bernardo Monteagudo, and Ministry of Finance, Dr. [[Hipólito Unanue]].<ref>José Valdizán Gamio, ''Naval History of Peru'', volume 8.</ref>

During the Protectorate, on April 7, 1822, the division of Tristán who traveled to [[Pisco, Peru|Pisco]], suffered a disastrous defeat of the [[Royalist (Spanish American Independence)|royalist side]] after the [[Battle of Ica|Macacona battle]], many soldiers and losing much of his weaponry.<ref>[http://www.edutecne.utn.edu.ar/guayaquil/Guayaquil.pdf San Martín: the birth of the Protectorate]. format=PDF. Eduardo Giorlandini</ref>

In order to accelerate the total independence of Peru in the Southern Highlands, [[José de San Martín|San Martín]] traveled to [[Guayaquil conference|Guayaquil]]<ref>[http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte2/files/pdf/Texto%20074.pdf The conference of Guayaquil format=PDF. autor=Bartolomé Mitre</ref> to agree with [[Simón Bolívar|Bolívar]], for ask military aid, but at the end of the conference, no agreement was reached, and [[José de San Martín|San Martín]] retired from [[Guayaquil]] to the decision to leave Peru. [[Executive (government)|Executive]] handed three of its members, who formed a collegial body called the Supreme Governing Board and whose head was General [[José de la Mar]] (21 September 1822).

[[File:BattleofAyacucho.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Battle of Ayacucho]].]]
The Governing Board wanted to end the [[Peruvian War of Independence|war of independence]] and self-organized the First Intermediate Campaign, which ended in failure. Then the army officers revolted in the called mutiny of Balconcillo and with [[coup]] deposed the Board and appointed as President of Peru to [[José de la Riva Agüero]] (28 February 1823).

[[José de la Riva Agüero|Riva Agüero]] would also defeat the Spanish, who were left in central and southern Peru, and organized a Second campaign Intermediate, the same that also ended in failure. Then he had an open dispute with Congress and moved to [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]], where he set up his government, while in Lima, Congress appointed as new President [[José Bernardo de Tagle]], better known as the Marquis of Torre Tagle. Congress, given the critical situation, agreed to call [[Simón Bolívar|Bolívar]] and his Liberation Army.

After reuniting the country's leadership, [[Simón Bolívar|Bolívar]] his headquarters in [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]] and organized the final campaign of Independence, with the decisive help of Peruvians, both soldiers, and money, supplies and resources of all kinds. After the battles of [[Battle of Junín|Junín]] and [[Battle of Ayacucho|Ayacucho]], on August 6 and 9 December 1824 respectively, managed to defeat and expel Peru's definitely the royalist troops.


== Government ==
== Government ==

Revision as of 19:49, 9 September 2012

For other uses, see Peru (disambiguation).

Republic of Peru
República del Perú (Spanish)
Anthem: "Himno Nacional del Perú"  Template:Es icon
"National Anthem of Peru"
Location of Peru
Capital
and largest city
Lima
Official languagesSpanish
Demonym(s)Peruvian
GovernmentUnitary presidential constitutional republic
• President
Ollanta Humala
Juan Jiménez Mayor
LegislatureCongress
Independence 
from Spain
• Declared
July 28, 1821
• Consolidated
December 9, 1824
• Recognized
August 14, 1879
December 31, 1993
Area
• Total
1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi) (20th)
• Water (%)
0.41
Population
• 2010 estimate
29,496,000 (40th)
• 2007 census
28,220,764
• Density
23/km2 (59.6/sq mi) (191st)
GDP (PPP)2012 estimate
• Total
$322.675 billion[1]
• Per capita
$10,588[1]
GDP (nominal)2012 estimate
• Total
$184.962 billion[1]
• Per capita
$6,069[1]
Gini (2009)▼48[2]
Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2010)Increase0.723[3]
Error: Invalid HDI value (63rd)
CurrencyNuevo Sol (PEN)
Time zoneUTC−5 (PET)
Date formatdd.mm.yyyy (Spanish;CE)
Driving sideright
Calling code+51
ISO 3166 codePE
Internet TLD.pe
  1. Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant.

Peru /pəˈruː/ ⓘ (Spanish: Perú; Quechua: Perú;[4] Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú, pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu] ⓘ), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures, spanning from the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.

Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes Mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 31%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 29.5 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology

The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.[5] When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.[6] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.[7]

The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.[8] Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after the Peruvian War of Independence.

History

Main article: History of Peru

The oldest archaeological remains are after the first settlement of America. Correspond to XIII millennium B.C., dating found in the Cave of Guitarrero (Ancash), in the north-central highlands of the country.[9]

At the end of the last ice age, the first settlers began the slow process of domestication of the local biota (see: Neolithic Revolution) and to gather in tribes and villages to form eventually ayllus. It found traces of the origin of American agriculture in the basin of Zaña River in Nanchoc (Cajamarca) 9000 years ago (7,600 B.C.).[10]

Ancient Peru

Main article: Ancient Peru
Nazca Lines: Monkey figure.
Pyramids of Caral (III millennium BC.), Site of the first civilization of the american continent.[11]

By the IV millennium B.C., the village communities of the coast began a hierarchy that overlapped the tribal organization. Then came the first signs of organized architecture, with public and ceremonial buildings. At the beginning of the III millennium B.C., emerged in the complex of Caral, the oldest civilization of the Americas,[12] centre of an extensive trade network that stretched from Ecuador to the jungle of Peru, which was involved with extensive production of cotton (Gossypium barbadense) and linked with a ceremonial worship leadership. Caral is contemporary to the civilizations of China, Egypt, India and Mesopotamia; respect of an area which can be considered as the cradle of civilization in the world because of its age (c. 5000 years).

Subsequently, it spread along the coast the Cupisnique culture whose ceremonial centers would peak until his idleness for the birth of Kuntur Wasi and Chavín de Huantar.[13] Later this period, the Chavín culture exerted enormous influence over the other until his decline.

The petroglyphs and channels of Cumbemayo, half an hour from the city of Cajamarca, constitute a masterpiece of hydraulic engineering. These blocks carved by running water on a gentle slope, which includes tunnels and zigzag bends to slow the flow. The stone blocks placed at the top of the route have various levels cut and polished. One of these blocks, truncated cone-shaped, is traditionally known as "sacrificial stone".

Machu Picchu, icon of Inca architecture.

Within the Moche culture at north and Nazca culture at south, developed the first states with permanent militia, linked to pieces of top rated ceramic art of ancient Peru. In the far south, meanwhile, emerges Tiahuanaco as dominant culture of Altiplano. Later, the Wari culture developed the classical model of the Andean State with the rise of cities of imperial court, model that spread to north to the 8th century. From the 9th century, after the abandonment of Wari, erected new regional centralizers States along the Andes, such as Lambayeque, Chimú and Chincha, a period known as the Late Intermediate or regional states.


Image of the interior of the fortress of Kuelap.

Of these domains include that of the Incas, that by the 15th century annexed all Andean towns between the rivers Maule and Ancasmayo, with an area of ​​nearly 3 million km², today located in the territories of southern Colombia, the west of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile and northwestern Argentina, forming what is known as the Inca Empire. Its capital was Cusco, located in the southern highlands of Peru. In addition to its military strength, excelled in architecture, with magnificent structures as the citadel of Machu Picchu.

In 1532, the Inca Empire or Tahuantisuyo succumbed to Spanish conquest conducted Francisco Pizarro. The conqueror found the Empire weakened by a civil war that began in 1529 between Huáscar and Atahualpa, the two brothers imperial pretenders. In November 1532, Pizarro captured Atahualpa, and in July 1533, had him executed on charges of ordering the killing of his brother Huáscar. Subduing the opposition, relatively weak of some Inca generals, began the Spanish rule that established on the territory of the former Inca Empire, the most powerful viceroyalty that Spain had in overseas.

Conquest and colonial period

Engraving Capture of Atahualpa in Cajamarca by Guaman Poma.
See also: Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire and Viceroyalty of Peru

A mid-16th century, the Inca civil war happened, after the sudden death of Huayna Capac and his heir Ninan Cuyochi (possibly by the epidemic of smallpox brought by the Europeans) faced his children Huáscar and Atahualpa, the latter defeated Huáscar and destroyed the organization of Cusco, besides killing much of the Inca royal family, after that headed north to Tumibamba where in Cajamarca he was ambushed and captured by the army of Francisco Pizarro, which pleased the family of Huáscar and many Cuscoans, Pizarro then would join thousands of men from ethnic opposition to the Incas, and was received with honors Pizarro in Cusco and the occupied city without a battle, then Pizarro founded Lima. Soon civil war arose between the conquerors by the distribution of the new land encomiendas. In 1542, it established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which initially covered de iure a geographical point from what is now Panama to the southern tip of the continent. The new order led another uprising known as the revolt of the encomenderos. In the 1570s, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the territory of pacifying the country, culminating with the Inca resistance.

The conquistador Francisco Pizarro.

The Spanish Empire meant for Peru profound social and economic transformation. Mercantilist system was implemented, supported by mining of gold and silver, primarily, of Potosí, the commercial monopoly and the exploitation of indigenous labor under the forced labor or mita.

From the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the collection of the Crown was slowly undermined by the decline of mining and consequent economic diversification, as well as commercial smuggling. In this context, the Bourbon reforms were imposed, which detracted from the elite Limaian political power and affected economically internal trade, which led to several uprisings of which the most impact was the rebellion of the descendant of the Incas Túpac Amaru II; the latter came to threaten the colonial government in Cusco, but by making racial dyes indiscriminately against Criollos, precipitated their defeat. After the death of José Gabriel Túpac Amaru, the indigenous culture was fiercely repressed by Bourbon authorities and had delayed the emancipatory projects given the fear of further riots against peninsular and Criollo elite.

No doubt that Cusco was the chief city of the whole Inca Empire. When taking it the Spanish, the Inca resistance dwindled significantly, not only because there was the whole organization of the empire, but by the meaning it had for Inca armies see their capital taken and dominated by the Spanish.

There are in this city many others quarters and greatness, passing through both sides two rivers coming a mile (5.5 kilometers) upstream of and from there until these reach the city and two miles (11 kilometers) below, all go tiled so that water runs clean and clear and although grow not overflow, have their bridges so it enters the city...

In the 18th century, were conducted several Indian uprisings in reaction to the abuses of the Spanish corregidors, lack of justice, delay claims, and improper collection of taxes, which include the likes of Juan Santos Atahualpa, Túpac Amaru II y Túpac Katari.

The rebellion of Túpac Amaru II was lifting greater social and political impact of this era. On November 4, 1780, Túpac Amaru II managed to prepare a revolutionary movement that threatened the power of the monarchy. That night he took prisoner the corregidor Antonio Arriaga, who forced him to hand over the royal funds and then had him executed as punishment for his cruelties.[14] then managed to organize a considerable army of indigenous; in Cusco the nearby corregidors gathered and also organized an army that went in search of Túpac Amaru II. Both armies met in the village of Sangarará, waged a brutal and bloody battle that Tupac Amaru II was victorious.[15] In Cuzco, the May 18, 1781, is given a trial and sentenced to death along with others leaders of the rebellion. First they tried to dismember him, where his limbs were tied to four horses, but failing, he was sent to behead.

Indian uprisings were controlled by the Spanish monarchy, but they influenced future independence struggles.

Independence

Main article: Peruvian War of Independence
Act of Independence of Peru.

In the 19th century came Liberating South Stream led by Argentine General [[[José de San Martín]] to wean mission to Peru. On August 20, 1820, departed Valparaíso, Chile, bound for Peru, reaching the Bay of Paracas after two weeks at sea. There, after a few days, talks in Miraflores (September 25) between representatives of San Martín and the Viceroy Pezuela to seek independence peacefully, but these failed. General San Martin subsequently contacted the mayor of Trujillo José Bernardo de Tagle, who had come to the city the same year, in a letter dated November 20, 1820, inviting him to join the cause of emancipation.[16] Bernardo de Tagle joined the patriot cause proclaimed the Independence of Trujillo on 29 December 1820.

The Viceroy Pezuela resigned and was appointed as new Viceroy the General José de la Serna. La Serna proposed to San Martín new peaceful arrangements in the Conferences of Punchauca, which did not giving reach any agreement.

Juan Lepiani: San Martín proclaimed the independence of Peru (Rome, 1904)
Lima, Pinacoteca MNAAHP.

In this situation, the viceroy decided to evacuate Lima for fear of being exposed to attack of San Martín, who managed to occupy the city with an army of patriots.

The acts of declaration, proclamation and oath of independence of Peru was held in Lima, between the months of July-August 1821. The first, consisting of the signing of the document containing the declaration of independence, was made by the council of Lima on July 15 of that year.[17] The proclamation was held on July 28, 1821, when the leader of Liberating Expedition of Peru, the Argentine General José de San Martín proclaimed the independence from four public squares and established a new state, the Republic of Peru, whose name slogan tacit declaration of independence of the country.[18] As of September 29 , was the swearing by the people, organized in its various institutions. The first Peruvian Congress met on 20 September 1822.[19] Later, in 1824, the Venezuelan general Simón Bolívar after his victories at the battles of Junín and Battle of Ayacucho, on August 6 and 9 December 1824 respectively, accepted the surrender of royalist troops settled in the southern highlands, ending with the Viceroyalty of Peru.

See also: Peruvian War of Independence, Chincha Islands War, and Spanish American wars of independence

Republican Era

José de la Riva Agüero, first President of the Republic of Peru.
File:Congreso 1822.jpg
The First Constitutional Congress of Peru in 1822.

Once proclaimed the independence, San Martín, assumed command of the military political free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to the decree issued on August 3, 1821.[20] The Protectorate works contributed to the creation of the national library (a for knowledge), the approval of the national anthem, and the abolition of the mita (for Indians).

The December 27, 1821, San Martín created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río; Ministry of War and Navy, Dr. Bernardo Monteagudo, and Ministry of Finance, Dr. Hipólito Unanue.[21]

During the Protectorate, on April 7, 1822, the division of Tristán who traveled to Pisco, suffered a disastrous defeat of the royalist side after the Macacona battle, many soldiers and losing much of his weaponry.[22]

In order to accelerate the total independence of Peru in the Southern Highlands, San Martín traveled to Guayaquil[23] to agree with Bolívar, for ask military aid, but at the end of the conference, no agreement was reached, and San Martín retired from Guayaquil to the decision to leave Peru. Executive handed three of its members, who formed a collegial body called the Supreme Governing Board and whose head was General José de la Mar (21 September 1822).

Battle of Ayacucho.

The Governing Board wanted to end the war of independence and self-organized the First Intermediate Campaign, which ended in failure. Then the army officers revolted in the called mutiny of Balconcillo and with coup deposed the Board and appointed as President of Peru to José de la Riva Agüero (28 February 1823).

Riva Agüero would also defeat the Spanish, who were left in central and southern Peru, and organized a Second campaign Intermediate, the same that also ended in failure. Then he had an open dispute with Congress and moved to Trujillo, where he set up his government, while in Lima, Congress appointed as new President José Bernardo de Tagle, better known as the Marquis of Torre Tagle. Congress, given the critical situation, agreed to call Bolívar and his Liberation Army.

After reuniting the country's leadership, Bolívar his headquarters in Trujillo and organized the final campaign of Independence, with the decisive help of Peruvians, both soldiers, and money, supplies and resources of all kinds. After the battles of Junín and Ayacucho, on August 6 and 9 December 1824 respectively, managed to defeat and expel Peru's definitely the royalist troops.

Government

Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru
Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and can only seek re-election after standing down for at least one full term.[24] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.[25] Congress is unicameral with 130 members elected for a five-year term.[26] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.[27] The judiciary is nominally independent,[28] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.[29]

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.[30] General elections held in 2011 ended in a second-round victory for presidential candidate Ollanta Humala of the Gana Perú alliance (51.4% of valid votes) over Keiko Fujimori of Fuerza 2011 (48.5%).[31] Congress is currently composed of Gana Perú (47 seats), Fuerza 2011 (37 seats), Alianza Parlamentaria (20 seats), Alianza por el Gran Cambio (12 seats), Solidaridad Nacional (8 seats) and Concertación Parlamentaria (6 seats).[32]

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.[33] Currently, Peru disputes its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.[34] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[35] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.[36]

Regions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Peru
Clickable map of the regions of Peru.

Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.[37] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[38] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.[39]

Regions:

Province:

Geography

Main article: Geography of Peru

Peru covers 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi). It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes Mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.[40] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.[41]

Left: Alpamayo, a mountain peak in the Huascarán National Park.
Right: Manú National Park, a biosphere reserve, depicts the Peruvian rainforest.

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[42] Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.[43]

Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[44] In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[45] The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[46] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003; 5,855 of them endemic.[47]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Peru
Left: Buildings in the financial district of San Isidro, Lima.
Right: The seaport of Callao is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.

Peru is a developing country with a market-oriented economy; its 2010 per capita income is estimated by the IMF at US$5,195,[1] and it has a .725 Human Development Index making a rank of 80 based on 2011 data; high human development would be an index of .741.[48] Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.[49] Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.[50] According to 2010 data, 31.3% of its total population is poor, including 9.8% that lives in poverty.[51]

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.[52]

Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.[53] Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[54]

Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[55] Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.[56] Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on April 12, 2006.[57] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[58]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Peru
File:Mario Vargas Llosa firmando autografos.jpg
Clockwise from top:
Afro-Peruvian association football athlete Jefferson Farfán.
Nobel laureate writer Mario Vargas Llosa.
Ex-President of Peru, economist Alejandro Toledo.

Peru is a multiethnic country formed by different groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish Conquest of the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.[59] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and indigenous peoples. Gradual European immigration from Italy, Spain, France, Britain, and Germany followed independence.[60]

Chinese arrived in the 1850s, replacing slave workers, and have since greatly influenced Peruvian society.[61] The majority of the people in Peru are Amerindians, mostly Quechua and Aymara, or mestizos who are of mixed white and Amerindian ancestry.[62] There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.[63]

With about 29.5 million inhabitants, Peru is the fifth most populous country in South America.[64] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[65] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.[66] Major cities include Lima (home to over 8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.[67]

Spanish, the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians aged five and older in 2007, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most common of which is Quechua, spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians, respectively.[68]

In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of other denominations, and 2.9% as non-religious.[69] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[70] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.[71]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Peru
Anonymous Cuzco School painting, 18th century

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,[72] though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.[73]

During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.[74] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.[75] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.[76]

Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.[77] The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría[78] and José María Arguedas.[79] César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.[80]

Ceviche is a popular lime marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru

Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.[81] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.[82] Peru's diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.[83]

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.[84] In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.[85] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.[86] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.[87] Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, and huayno.[88]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e "Peru". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved April 20, 2012.
  2. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Retrieved March 2, 2011.
  3. ^ "Human Development Report 2010" (PDF). United Nations. 2010. Retrieved November 5, 2010.
  4. ^ Quechua name used by government of Peru is Perú (see Quechua language version of Peru Parliament website and Quechua language version of Peru Constitution [1]), but common Quechua name is Piruw
  5. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 83.
  6. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 84.
  7. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 86.
  8. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 87.
  9. ^ Lynch, Thomas F, R. Gillespie, John A. J. Gowlett y R. E. M. Hedges. "Chronology of Guitarrero Cave, Peru." Science, August 1985
  10. ^ Dolores R. Pipernoa and Tom D. Dillehay (2008). "Starch grains on human teeth reveal early broad crop diet in northern Peru" in PNAS December 16, 2008 vol. 105 no. 50 19622-19627
  11. ^ [2] Caral, the first civilization of America
  12. ^ Proyecto Especial Arqueológico Caral-Supe/INC
  13. ^ Izumi Shimada. Pampa Grande and the Mochica culture [3] |year=1994 |editorial=University of Texas Press. isbn=9780292776746 |pages=61
  14. ^ {{[4] Túpac Amaru II: Father of American Emancipation formato=PDF autor=Alberto Lapolla
  15. ^ [5] Túpac Amaru II. format=PDF.autor=Dirección Regional de Educación Piura
  16. ^ Juan Castañeda Murga. The dawn of the Republic in the Freedom. pag. 13. year 2009. editorial=Cobol Asesores Gráficos
  17. ^ The municipality of Lima and emancipation
  18. ^ Act of Independence of Peru
  19. ^ Installation of the first Peruvian Congress
  20. ^ Decree of General José de San Martín assuming the political and military high command with the title of Protector. format=PDF. August 3, 1821
  21. ^ José Valdizán Gamio, Naval History of Peru, volume 8.
  22. ^ San Martín: the birth of the Protectorate. format=PDF. Eduardo Giorlandini
  23. ^ [http://www.sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte2/files/pdf/Texto%20074.pdf The conference of Guayaquil format=PDF. autor=Bartolomé Mitre
  24. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 112.
  25. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 122.
  26. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 90.
  27. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Articles N° 107–108.
  28. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Articles N° 146.
  29. ^ Jeffrey Clark, Building on quicksand. Retrieved July 24, 2007.
  30. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 31.
  31. ^ Template:Es icon Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, Elecciones Generales 2011 Segunda Elección Presidencial. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
  32. ^ Template:Es icon Congreso de la República del Perú, Grupos Parlamentarios. Retrieved August 27, 2011.
  33. ^ Ronald Bruce St John, The foreign policy of Peru, pp. 223–224.
  34. ^ BBC News, Peru–Chile border row escalates. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
  35. ^ Ministerio de Defensa, Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional, p. 90.
  36. ^ Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar, Articles N° 29, 42 and 45.
  37. ^ Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 11.
  38. ^ Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 10.
  39. ^ Ley N° 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article N° 66.
  40. ^ AndesHandbook, Huascarán. Retrieved August 12, 2007.
  41. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 16.
  42. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 31.
  43. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 21.
  44. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 24–25.
  45. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 25–26.
  46. ^ Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 26–27.
  47. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 50.
  48. ^ United Nations Development Programme, "International Human Development Indicators". Human Development Report Office (HDRO) – United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Retrieved July 30, 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  49. ^ Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 4.
  50. ^ Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 321.
  51. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Evolución de la Pobreza en el Perú al 2010, p. 38.
  52. ^ Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, pp. 318–319.
  53. ^ John Sheahan, Searching for a better society, p. 157.
  54. ^ Template:Es icon Banco Central de Reserva, Producto bruto interno por sectores productivos 1951–2006. Retrieved December 27, 2010.
  55. ^ 2006 figures. Template:Es icon Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, p. 204. Retrieved December 27, 2010.
  56. ^ Template:Es icon Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 15, 203. Retrieved December 27, 2010.
  57. ^ Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement, April 12, 2006. Retrieved December 27, 2010.
  58. ^ 2006 figures. Template:Es icon Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 60–61. Retrieved December 27, 2010.
  59. ^ Noble David Cook, Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620, p. 114.
  60. ^ Mario Vázquez, "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81.
  61. ^ Magnus Mörner, Race mixture in the history of Latin America, p. 131.
  62. ^ CIA, World Factbook (Expand "people" tab)
  63. ^ "Isolated Peru tribe threatened by outsiders". USATODAY.com. January 31, 2012
  64. ^ United Nations, Template:PDFlink, pp. 44–48. Retrieved July 29, 2007.
  65. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, pp. 37–38, 40.
  66. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 13.
  67. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 24.
  68. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 111.
  69. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 132.
  70. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú, p. 93.
  71. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 17.
  72. ^ Víctor Andrés Belaunde, Peruanidad, p. 472.
  73. ^ Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of colonial Latin America, pp. 72–74.
  74. ^ Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of colonial Latin America, p. 263.
  75. ^ Edward Lucie-Smith, Latin American art of the 20th century, pp. 76–77, 145–146.
  76. ^ Damián Bayón, "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980", pp. 425–428.
  77. ^ Gerald Martin, "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870", pp. 37–39.
  78. ^ Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 151–152.
  79. ^ Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 178–179.
  80. ^ Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 186–188.
  81. ^ Tony Custer, The Art of Peruvian Cuisine, pp. 17–22.
  82. ^ Tony Custer, The Art of Peruvian Cuisine, pp. 25–38.
  83. ^ Embassy of Peru in the United States, The Peruvian Gastronomy[dead link]. Retrieved December 27, 2010.
  84. ^ Raúl Romero, "Andean Peru", p. 385–386.
  85. ^ Dale Olsen, Music of El Dorado, pp. 17–22.
  86. ^ Thomas Turino, "Charango", p. 340.
  87. ^ Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 263–265.
  88. ^ Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 243–245, 261–263.

References

Etymology
  • Template:Es icon Porras Barrenechea, Raúl. El nombre del Perú. Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968.
History
  • Andrien, Kenneth. Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeenth century. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985.
  • Anna, Timothy. The fall of the royal government in Peru. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979.
  • Bakewell, Peter. Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian labor in Potosi 1545–1650. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1984.
  • BBC News. Fujimori: Decline and fall. November 20, 2000.
  • Burkholder, Mark. From impotence to authority: the Spanish Crown and the American audiencias, 1687–1808. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977.
  • D'Altroy, Terence. The Incas. Malden: Blackwell, 2002.
  • Dillehay, Tom, Duccio Bonavia and Peter Kaulicke. "The first settlers". In Helaine Silverman (ed.), Andean archaeology. Malden: Blackwell, 2004, pp. 16–34.
  • Gootenberg, Paul. Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991.
  • Gootenberg, Paul. Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano, 1840–1880. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
  • Haas, Jonathan, Winifred Creamer and Alvaro Ruiz. "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru". Nature 432: 1020–1023 (December 23, 2004).
  • Klarén, Peter. Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  • Mayer, Enrique. The articulated peasant: household economies in the Andes. Boulder: Westview, 2002
  • Mücke, Ulrich. Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004.
  • O'Phelan, Scarlett. Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru. Cologne: Böhlau, 1985.
  • Palmer, David. Peru: the authoritarian tradition. New York: Praeger, 1980.
  • Philip, George. The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals. London: University of London, 1978.
  • Template:Es icon Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias. Madrid: Cultura Hispánica, 1973
  • Schydlowsky, Daniel and Juan Julio Wicht. "Anatomy of an economic failure". In Cynthia McClintock and Abraham Lowenthal (ed.), The Peruvian experiment reconsidered. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983, pp. 94–143.
  • Template:Es icon Suárez, Margarita. Desafíos transatlánticos. Lima: FCE/IFEA/PUCP, 2001.
  • The Economist. Peru. June 12, 2007.
  • Walker, Charles. Smoldering ashes: Cuzco and the creation of Republican Peru, 1780–1840. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999.
Government
Regions
Geography
  • AndesHandbook. Huascarán. June 2, 2002.
  • Template:Es icon Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú. El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico. Lima: Auge, 1996.
  • Template:Es icon Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Template:PDFlink. Lima: INEI, 2005.
Economy
  • Template:Es icon Banco Central de Reserva. Cuadros Anuales Históricos.
  • Template:Es icon Banco Central de Reserva. Memoria 2006. Lima: BCR, 2007
  • Template:Es icon Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos, 2004–2008. Lima: INEI, 2009.
  • International Monetary Fund. Peru. January 2010.
  • Office of the U.S. Trade Representative. United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement. April 12, 2006.
  • Sheahan, John. Searching for a better society: the Peruvian economy from 1950. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
  • Thorp, Rosemary and Geoffrey Bertram. Peru 1890–1977: growth and policy in an open economy. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978.
  • United Nations Development Programme, Template:PDFlink. New York: UNDP, 2009.
Demographics
  • Cook, Noble David. Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
  • Template:Es icon Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050. Lima: INEI, 2001.
  • Template:Es icon Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú. Lima: INEI, 2008.
  • Mörner, Magnus. Race mixture in the history of Latin America. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1967.
  • United Nations. Template:PDFlink. New York: United Nations, 2007.
  • Vázquez, Mario. "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru". In: Magnus Mörner, Race and class in Latin America. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970, pp. 73–95.
Culture
  • Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. Art of colonial Latin America. London: Phaidon, 2005.
  • Bayón, Damián. "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 393–454.
  • Template:Es icon Belaunde, Víctor Andrés. Peruanidad. Lima: BCR, 1983.
  • Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227–260.
  • Custer, Tony. The Art of Peruvian Cuisine. Lima: Ediciones Ganesha, 2003.
  • Embassy of Peru in the United States. The Peruvian Gastronomy[dead link].
  • Lucie-Smith, Edward. Latin American art of the 20th century. London: Thames and Hudson, 1993.
  • Martin, Gerald. "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 3–45.
  • Martin, Gerald. "Narrative since c. 1920". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 133–225.
  • Olsen, Dale. Music of El Dorado: the ethnomusicology of ancient South American cultures. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002.
  • Template:Es icon Romero, Raúl. "La música tradicional y popular". In: Patronato Popular y Porvenir, La música en el Perú. Lima: Industrial Gráfica, 1985, pp. 215–283.
  • Romero, Raúl. "Andean Peru". In: John Schechter (ed.), Music in Latin American culture: regional tradition. New York: Schirmer Books, 1999, pp. 383–423.
  • Turino, Thomas. "Charango". In: Stanley Sadie (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. New York: MacMillan Press Limited, 1993, vol. I, p. 340.

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