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Alphonse mucha, boutique fouquet, 1899, 02.JPG|[[Art Nouveau]] - [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bijouterie_Fouquet Bijouterie Fouquet], [[Musée Carnavalet]], Paris, by [[Alphonse Mucha]], {{c.|1900}}{{sfn|Duncan|1994|p=43}}
Alphonse mucha, boutique fouquet, 1899, 02.JPG|French [[Art Nouveau]] - [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bijouterie_Fouquet Bijouterie Fouquet], [[Musée Carnavalet]], Paris, by [[Alphonse Mucha]], {{c.|1900}}{{sfn|Duncan|1994|p=43}}


IA00129908 14 avenue Gallieni.jpg|Art Nouveau - Avenue Gallieni no. 14, Paris, by [[Eugène Coulon (architect)|Eugène Coulon]], 1903-1904
IA00129908 14 avenue Gallieni.jpg|French Art Nouveau - Avenue Gallieni no. 14, Paris, by [[Eugène Coulon (architect)|Eugène Coulon]], 1903-1904

Douai Rue Pollinchove -Façade tournesol -1902 - André Pépe Architecte.jpg|French Art Nouveau - Rue Jean-Bellegambe no. 21, [[Douai]], France, by [[Pepe Albert]], 1904<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00107468|website=pop.culture.gouv.fr|author=|access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref>


Будинок земства P1230868 пл. Конституції, 2.jpg|Ukrainian Art Nouveau - Poltava Reginal Administrative Building, [[Poltava]], [[Ukraine]], by [[Vasyl Krychevskyl]], 1903-1907<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=Treasures of Ukraine - A Nation's Cultural Heritage|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02603-8|page=168|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Будинок земства P1230868 пл. Конституції, 2.jpg|Ukrainian Art Nouveau - Poltava Reginal Administrative Building, [[Poltava]], [[Ukraine]], by [[Vasyl Krychevskyl]], 1903-1907<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=Treasures of Ukraine - A Nation's Cultural Heritage|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02603-8|page=168|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Revision as of 14:24, 15 May 2023

1883 reconstruction of color scheme of the entablature on a Doric temple

Polychrome is the "practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors."[1] The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colors.

When looking at artworks and architecture from antiquity and the middle ages, people tend to believe that they were monochrome. In reality, the pre-Renaissance past was full of colour, and all the Greco-Roman sculptures and Gothic cathedrals, that are now white, beige or grey, were initially painted in bright colours. As André Malraux stated, "Athens was never white but her statues, bereft of color, have conditioned the artistic sensibilities of Europe... the whole past has reached us colorless."[2] Polychrome was and is a practice not limited only to the Western world. Non-Western artworks, like Chinese temples, Oceanian Uli figures, or Maya ceramic vases, were also decorated with colours.

Ancient Near East

Ancient Egypt

Thanks to the dry climate of Egypt, the original colours of many ancient sculptures in round, reliefs, paintings and various objects were well preserved. Some of the best preserved examples of ancient Egyptian architecture were the tombs, covered inside with sculpted reliefs painted in bright colours or just frescos. Egyptian artists primarily worked in black, red, yellow, brown, blue, and green pigments. These colours were derived from ground minerals, synthetic materials (Egyptian blue, Egyptian green, and frits used to make glass and ceramic glazes), and carbon-based blacks (soot and charcoal). Most of the minerals were available from local supplies, like iron-oxide pigments (red ochre, yellow ochre, and umber); white derived from the calcium carbonate found in Egypt's extensive limestone hills; and blue and green from azurite and malachite.

Besides their decorative effect, colours were also used for their symbolic associations. Colours on sculptures, coffins, and architecture had both aesthetic and symbolic qualities. Ancient Egyptians saw black as the colour of the fertile alluvial soil, and so associated it with fertility and regeneration. Black was also associated with the afterlife, and was the colour of funerary deities like Anubis. White was the colour of purity, while green and blue were associated with vegetation and rejuvenation. Because of this, Osiris was often shown with green skin, and the faces of coffins from the 26th Dynasty were often green. Red, orange, and yellow were associated with the sun. Red was also the colour of the deserts, and hence associated with Seth and the forces of destruction.[6][7]

Classical world

Relics of polychrome on an Ancient Greek Ionic capital, from an unidentified 5th century BC building. Ancient Agora Museum, Athens, Stoa of Attalus

Some very early polychrome pottery has been excavated on Minoan Crete such as at the Bronze Age site of Phaistos.[10] In ancient Greece sculptures were painted in strong colors. The paint was frequently limited to parts depicting clothing, hair, and so on, with the skin left in the natural color of the stone. But it could cover sculptures in their totality. The painting of Greek sculpture should not merely be seen as an enhancement of their sculpted form but has the characteristics of a distinct style of art. For example, the pedimental sculptures from the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina have recently[when?] been demonstrated to have been painted with bold and elaborate patterns, depicting, amongst other details, patterned clothing. The polychrome of stone statues was paralleled by the use of materials to distinguish skin, clothing and other details in chryselephantine sculptures, and by the use of metals to depict lips, nipples, etc., on high-quality bronzes like the Riace bronzes.

An early example of polychrome decoration was found in the Parthenon atop the Acropolis of Athens. By the time European antiquarianism took off in the 18th century, however, the paint that had been on classical buildings had completely weathered off. Thus, the antiquarians' and architects' first impressions of these ruins were that classical beauty was expressed only through shape and composition, lacking in robust colors, and it was that impression which informed neoclassical architecture. However, some classicists such as Jacques Ignace Hittorff noticed traces of paint on classical architecture and this slowly came to be accepted. Such acceptance was later accelerated by observation of minute color traces by microscopic and other means, enabling less tentative reconstructions than Hittorff and his contemporaries had been able to produce. An example of classical Greek architectural polychrome may be seen in the full size replica of the Parthenon exhibited in Nashville, Tennessee, US.

East Asia

Chinese art is known for the use of vibrant colours. Neolithic Chinese ceramic vessels, like those produced by the Yangshao culture, show the use of black and red pigments. Later, tomb and religious sculptures appear as a consequence of the spread of Buddhism. The deities most common in Chinese Buddhist sculpture are forms of the Buddha and the bodhisattva Guanyin. Traces of gold and bright colours in which sculptures were painted still give an idea of their effect. During the Han and Tang dynasties, polychrome ceramic figurines of servants, entertainers, tenants and soldiers were placed in the tombs of people from upper-class. These figurines were mass-produced in moulds. Although Chinese porcelain is best known as being blue-and-white, many colorful ceramic vases and figures were produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties. During the same two dynasties, cloisonné vessels that use copper wires (cloisons) and bright enamel were also manufactured.

Similarly to what was happening in China, the introduction of Buddhism in Japan in 538 (or perhaps 552 AD) lead to the production of many polychrome Japanese Buddhist sculptures. Japanese religious imagery had until then consisted of disposable clay figures used to convey prayers to the spirit world.[19]

Medieval world

Throughout medieval Europe religious sculptures in wood and other media were often brightly painted or colored, as were the interiors of church buildings. These were often destroyed or whitewashed during iconoclast phases of the Protestant Reformation or in other unrest such as the French Revolution, though some have survived in museums such as the V&A, Musée de Cluny and Louvre. The exteriors of churches were painted as well, but little has survived. Exposure to the elements and changing tastes and religious approval over time acted against their preservation. The "Majesty Portal" of the Collegiate church of Toro is the most extensive remaining example, due to the construction of a chapel which enclosed and protected it from the elements just a century after it was completed.[22]

Baroque and Rococo periods

While stone and metal sculpture normally remained uncolored, like the classical survivals, polychromed wood sculptures were produced by Spanish artists: Juan Martínez Montañés, Gregorio Fernández (17th century); German: Ignaz Günther, Philipp Jakob Straub (18th century), or Brazilian: Aleijadinho (19th century).

With the arrival of European porcelain in the 18th century, brightly colored pottery figurines with a wide range of colors became very popular.

Monochromatic color solutions of architectural orders were also designed in the late, dynamic Baroque, drawing on the ideas of Borromini and Guarini. Single-colored stone cladding was used: light sandstone, as in the case of the façade of the Bamberg Jesuit church (Gunzelmann 2016) designed by Georg and Leonhard Dientzenhofer (1686–1693), the façade of the monastery church in Michelsberg by Leonard Dientzenhofer (1696), and the abbey church in Neresheim by J.B. Neumann (1747–1792).[26]

19th century

Despite evidence of polychrome being discovered on Ancient Greek architecture and sculptures, most Neoclassical buildings have white or beige facades, and black metalwork. Around 1840, the French architect Jacques Ignace Hittorff, published studies of Sicilian architecture, documenting extensive evidence of color. The 'polychrome controversy' raged for over a decade and proved to be a challenge for Neoclassical architects throughout Europe.[18]

Due to the discovery of frescos in the Roman cities Pompeii and Herculaneum during the 18th century, multiple 18th and 19th century Neoclassical houses have their interiors decorated with colourful Pompeian style frescos. They often feature bright red, known as "Pompeian red". The fashion for Pompeian styles of painting resulted in rooms finished in vivid blocks of colour. Examples include the Pompeian Room from the Hinxton Hall in Cambridgeshire, the Pompejanum in Aschaffenburg, Empress Joséphine's Bedroom from the Château de Malmaison, and Napoleon's bath of the Château de Rambouillet. By the beginning of the 19th century, painters were also able to create effects of marbling and graining to imitate wood.

Polychrome brickwork is a style of architectural brickwork which emerged in the 1860s and used bricks of different colours (brown, cream, yellow, red, blue and black) in patterned combinations to highlight architectural features. These patterns were made around window arches or were just applied on walls. It was often used to replicate the effect of quoining. Early examples featured banding, with later examples exhibiting complex diagonal, criss-cross, and step patterns, in some cases even writing using bricks.[32]

20th century

In the twentieth century there were notable periods of polychromy in architecture, from the expressions of Art Nouveau throughout Europe, to the international flourishing of Art Deco or Art Moderne, to the development of postmodernism in the latter decades of the century. During these periods, brickwork, stone, tile, stucco and metal facades were designed with a focus on the use of new colors and patterns, while architects often looked for inspiration to historical examples ranging from Islamic tilework to English Victorian brick.

Before WWI

At the beginning of the 20th century, before the world wars, Revivalism (including Neoclassicism and the Gothic Revival) and eclecticism of historic styles were very popular in design and architecture. Art Nouveau was also in fashion during the 1900s, but started to be seen as 'dated' during the 1910s. Many of the buildings from this period have their interiors decorated with colours, through tiles, mosaics, stuccos or murals. When it comes to exteriors, most polychrome facades are decorated with ceramic tiles.

Modernism

During the interwar period and the middle of the 20th century, Modernism was in fashion. To Modernists, form was more important than ornament, so solid blocks of strong colour were often used to emphasize shape and create contrast. Primary colours and black and white were preferred. This is really the case of the Dutch De Stijl movement, which began in 1917. The style involved reducing an object (wether a painting or a design) to its essentials, using only black, white and primary colours, and a simple geometry of straight lines and planes. Gerrit Rietveld's Red and Blue Chair (1917-1918) and Rietveld Schröder House in Utrecht (1924) show this use of colour. Polychromy in Modernist design was not limited to De Stijl. The Unité d'habitation, a residential housing typology developed by Le Corbusier, has some flat colourful parts. Despite their lack of ornamentation, multiple Mid-century modern designs, like Lucienne Day's textiles, Charles and Ray Eames's Hang-It-All coat hanger (1953), or Irving Harper's Marshmallow sofa (1956), are decorated with colours. Aside from individual objects, mid-century modern interiors were also quite colourful. This was also caused by the fact that after WW2, plastics became increasingly popular as a material for kitchenware and kitchen units, light fixtures, electrical appliances and toys, and by the fact that plastic could be produced in a wide range of colours, from jade green to red.[48]

Postmodernism

The use of vivid clashing colours continued with Postmodernism, in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. Postmodern architects working with bold colors included Robert Venturi (Allen Memorial Art Museum addition; Best Company Warehouse), Michael Graves (Snyderman House; Humana Building), and James Stirling (Neue Staatsgalerie; Arthur M. Sackler Museum), among others. Aside from architecture, bright colours were present on everything, from furniture to textiles and posters. Neon greens and yellows were popular in product design, as were fluorescent tones of scarlet, pink, and orange used together. Injection-moulded plastics gave designers new creative freedom, making it possible to mass produce almost any shape (and colour) quickly and cheaply.[55]

An artist well known for her polychrome artworks is Niki de Saint Phalle, who produced many sculptures painted in bold colours. She devoted the later decades of her life to building a live-in sculpture park in Tuscany, the Tarot Garden, with artworks covered in vibrant colourful mosaics.[56]

United States

Polychrome building facades later rose in popularity as a way of highlighting certain trim features in Victorian and Queen Anne architecture in the United States. The rise of the modern paint industry following the American Civil War also helped to fuel the (sometimes extravagant) use of multiple colors.

Early 20th Century polychrome pediment, Philadelphia Museum of Art (1928)
Water pot, Acoma Pueblo, c. 1889-1903, earthenware decorated with slip - De Young Museum

The polychrome facade style faded with the rise of the 20th century's revival movements, which stressed classical colors applied in restrained fashion and, more importantly, with the birth of modernism, which advocated clean, unornamented facades rendered in white stucco or paint. Polychromy reappeared with the flourishing of the preservation movement and its embrace of (what had previously been seen as) the excesses of the Victorian era and in San Francisco, California in the 1970s to describe its abundant late-nineteenth-century houses. These earned the endearment 'Painted Ladies', a term that in modern times is considered kitsch when it is applied to describe all Victorian houses that have been painted with period colors.

John Joseph Earley (1881–1945) developed a "polychrome" process of concrete slab construction and ornamentation that was admired across America. In the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, his products graced a variety of buildings — all formed by the staff of the Earley Studio in Rosslyn, Virginia. Earley's Polychrome Historic District houses in Silver Spring, Maryland were built in the mid-1930s. The concrete panels were pre-cast with colorful stones and shipped to the lot for on-site assembly. Earley wanted to develop a higher standard of affordable housing after the Depression, but only a handful of the houses were built before he died; written records of his concrete casting techniques were destroyed in a fire. Less well-known, but just as impressive, is the Dr. Fealy Polychrome House that Earley built atop a hill in Southeast Washington, D.C. overlooking the city. His uniquely designed polychrome houses were outstanding among prefabricated houses in the country, appreciated for their Art Deco ornament and superb craftsmanship.

Native American ceramic artists, in particular those in the Southwest, produced polychrome pottery from the time of the Mogollon cultures and Mimbres peoples to contemporary times.[61]

21st century

In the 2000s, the art of designing toys was taking off. Multiple monochrome or polychrome vinyl figurines were produced during this period, and are still produced during the 2020s. A few artists who designed vinyl toys include Joe Ledbetter, Takashi Murakami, Flying Förtress and CoonOne1.

During the 2010s and the early 2020s, a new interest for Postmodern architecture and design appeared. One of the causes were memorial exhibitions that presented the style, the most comprehensive and influential one being held at the Victoria & Albert Museum in London in 2011, called Postmodernism: Style and Subversion, 1975-1990. The Salone del Mobile in Milan since 2014 showcased revivals, reinterpretations, and new postmodern-influenced designs.[62] Because of this, multiple funky polychrome buildings were erected, like the House for Essex, Wrabness, Essex, the UK, by FAT and Grayson Perry, 2014[63] or the Miami Museum Garage, Miami, USA, by WORKac, 2018.[64]

Polychromatic light

The term polychromatic means having several colors. It is used to describe light that exhibits more than one color, which also means that it contains radiation of more than one wavelength. The study of polychromatics is particularly useful in the production of diffraction gratings.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Harris, Cyril M., ed. Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture, Dover Publications, New York, c. 1977, 1983 edition
  2. ^ Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus, Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, John Camp, Heinrich Piening, Oliver Primavesi (2017). GODS IN COLOR Polychromy in the Ancient World. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and DelMonico Books. p. 65. ISBN 978-3-7913-5707-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ van Lemmen, Hans (2013). 5000 Years of Tiles. The British Museum Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7141-5099-4.
  4. ^ van Lemmen, Hans (2013). 5000 Years of Tiles. The British Museum Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-7141-5099-4.
  5. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 6.
  6. ^ Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus, Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, John Camp, Heinrich Piening, Oliver Primavesi (2017). GODS IN COLOR Polychromy in the Ancient World. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and DelMonico Books. p. 62 & 63. ISBN 978-3-7913-5707-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Wilkinson, Toby (2008). Dictionary of ANCIENT EGYPT. Thames and Hudson. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-500-20396-5.
  8. ^ "temple-relief". britishmuseum.org. Retrieved May 1, 2023.
  9. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 20.
  10. ^ C. Michael Hogan, Knossos Fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian (2007)
  11. ^ Jones 2014, p. 37.
  12. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 40.
  13. ^ Bernard Holtzmann, Alain Pasquier (2011). Historie de l'Art Antique - L'Art Grec (in French). Ecole du Louvre. p. 220. ISBN 978-2-7118-5905-4.
  14. ^ Psarra, I. "Ministry of Culture and Sports: Mieza, the so-called Macedonian Tomb of the Palmettes". odysseus.culture.gr. Retrieved April 14, 2019.
  15. ^ Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus, Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, John Camp, Heinrich Piening, Oliver Primavesi (2017). GODS IN COLOR Polychromy in the Ancient World. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and DelMonico Books. p. 144. ISBN 978-3-7913-5707-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Virginia, L. Campbell (2017). Ancient Room - Pocket Museum. Thames & Hudson. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-500-51959-2.
  17. ^ Virginia, L. Campbell (2017). Ancient Room - Pocket Museum. Thames & Hudson. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-500-51959-2.
  18. ^ a b Bergdoll 2000, pp. 176.
  19. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 75, 76, 87, 93.
  20. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 75.
  21. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 76.
  22. ^ Katz, Melissa R. Architectural Polychromy and the Painters' Trade in Medieval Spain. Gesta. Vol. 41, No. 1, Artistic Identity in the Late Middle Ages (2002), pp. 3–14
  23. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 150.
  24. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 154.
  25. ^ Bresc-Bautier, Geneviève (2008). The Louvre, a Tale of a Palace. Musée du Louvre Éditions. ISBN 978-2-7572-0177-0.
  26. ^ Ludwig, Bogna. 2022. The Polychrome in Expression of Baroque Façade Architecture. Arts 11: 113. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts 11060113
  27. ^ Martin, Henry (1927). Le Style Louis XIV (in French). Flammarion. p. 31.
  28. ^ Jones 2014, p. 238.
  29. ^ Honour, Hugh; Fleming, John (2009). A World History of Art - Revised Seveth Edition. Laurence King. p. 619. ISBN 978-1-85669-584-8.
  30. ^ "Kina slott, Drottningholm". www.sfv.se. National Property Board of Sweden. Archived from the original on August 6, 2014. Retrieved August 2, 2014.
  31. ^ "Ground Floor". inveraray-castle.com. Retrieved April 23, 2023.
  32. ^ O'Brien, Charles (2017). Houses - An Architectural Guide. PEVSNER. p. 134, 138, 139. ISBN 9780300233421.
  33. ^ "PAIRE DE VASES « FUSEAU »". amisdulouvre.fr. Retrieved May 10, 2023.
  34. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. p. 443. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  35. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. p. 503. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  36. ^ Jones 2014, p. 286.
  37. ^ Bresc-Bautier, Geneviève (2008). The Louvre, a Tale of a Palace. Musée du Louvre Éditions. p. 122. ISBN 978-2-7572-0177-0.
  38. ^ Bresc-Bautier, Geneviève (2008). The Louvre, a Tale of a Palace. Musée du Louvre Éditions. p. 122. ISBN 978-2-7572-0177-0.
  39. ^ O'Brien, Charles (2017). Houses - An Architectural Guide. PEVSNER. p. 139. ISBN 9780300233421.
  40. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. p. 509. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  41. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. p. 509. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  42. ^ "Arh. Ion Socolescu". ionsocolescu.blogspot.com. Retrieved April 30, 2023.
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  45. ^ pop.culture.gouv.fr https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00107468. Retrieved May 15, 2023. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
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  50. ^ Texier, Simon (2022). Architectures Art Déco - Paris et Environs - 100 Bâtiments Remarquable. Parigramme. p. 37. ISBN 978-2-37395-136-3.
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  55. ^ The Definitive Visual History of Design. DK Limited. 2015. p. 260, 261. ISBN 978-0-2411-8565-0.
  56. ^ Hessel, Katy (2022). The Story off Art without Men. Penguin Random House. p. 305. ISBN 9781529151145.
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  61. ^ Center for New Mexico Archaeology. "The Classification System". Office of Archaeological Studies, Pottery Typology Project. Retrieved December 23, 2020.
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References