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Modern mass market all-electric passenger cars. Clockwise from upper left: Jaguar I-Pace, Tesla Model 3, Nissan Leaf, and BMW i3

Electric vehicles first appeared in the mid-19th century. An electric vehicle held the vehicular land speed record until around 1900. The high cost, low top speed, and short range of battery electric vehicles, compared to 20th-century internal combustion engine vehicles, led to a worldwide decline in their use as private motor vehicles; although electric vehicles have continued to be used in the form of loading and freight equipment and public transport – especially rail vehicles.

At the beginning of the 21st century, interest in electric and other alternative fuel vehicles in private motor vehicles has increased due to growing concern over the problems associated with hydrocarbon-fueled vehicles, including damage to the environment caused by their emissions, and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon-based transportation infrastructure as well as improvements in electric vehicle technology.

Since 2010, combined sales of all-electric cars and utility vans achieved 1 million units delivered globally in September 2016,^[1] 4.8 million electric cars in use at the end of 2019,^[2] and cumulative sales of light-duty plug-in electric cars reached the 10 million unit milestone by the end of 2020.^[3] The global ratio between annual sales of battery electric cars and plug-in hybrids went from 56:44 in 2012 to 74:26 in 2019, and fell to 69:31 in 2020.^[3]^[4]^[5] As of August 2020^[update], the fully electric Tesla Model 3 is the world's all-time best selling plug-in electric passenger car, with around 645,000 units.^[6]

Early history

Electric model cars

The invention of the first model electric vehicle is attributed to various people.^[7] In 1828, the Hungarian priest and physicist Ányos Jedlik invented an early type of electric motor, and created a small model car powered by his new motor. Between 1832 and 1839, Scottish inventor Robert Anderson also invented a crude electric carriage.^[8] In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker from Germany also created a small-scale electric car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.^[9]

Electric locomotives

In 1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport built a similar contraption which operated on a short, circular, electrified track.^[10] The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837, in Scotland by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen. It was powered by galvanic cells (batteries). Davidson later built a larger locomotive named Galvani, exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The 7,100-kilogram (7-long-ton) vehicle had two direct-drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each axle, and simple commutators. It hauled a load of 6,100 kilograms (6 long tons) at 6.4 kilometres per hour (4 mph) for a distance of 2.4 km (1.5 miles). It was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use. It was destroyed by railway workers, who saw it as a threat to their security of employment.^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]

A patent for the use of rails as conductors of electric current was granted in England in 1840, and similar patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in the United States in 1847.^[15] The first battery rail car was used in 1887 on the Royal Bavarian State Railways.^[16]

First practical electric cars

Rechargeable batteries that provided a viable means for storing electricity on board a vehicle did not come into being until 1859, with the invention of the lead–acid battery by French physicist Gaston Planté.^[17]^[18] Camille Alphonse Faure, another French scientist, significantly improved the design of the battery in 1881; his improvements greatly increased the capacity of such batteries and led directly to their manufacture on an industrial scale.^[19]

What is likely the first human-carrying electric vehicle with its own power source was tested along a Paris street in April 1881 by French inventor Gustave Trouvé.^[20] In 1880 Trouvé improved the efficiency of a small electric motor developed by Siemens (from a design purchased from Johann Kravogl [de] in 1867) and using the recently developed rechargeable battery, fitted it to an English James Starley tricycle, so inventing the world's first electric vehicle.^[21] Although this was successfully tested on 19 April 1881 along the Rue Valois in central Paris, he was unable to patent it.^[22] Trouvé swiftly adapted his battery-powered motor to marine propulsion; to make it easy to carry his marine conversion to and from his workshop to the nearby River Seine, Trouvé made it portable and removable from the boat, thus inventing the outboard motor. On 26 May 1881, the 5-metre Trouvé boat prototype, called Le Téléphone reached a speed of 3.6 km/h (2.2 mph) going upstream and 9.0 km/h (5.6 mph) downstream.^[23]

English inventor Thomas Parker, who was responsible for innovations such as electrifying the London Underground, overhead tramways in Liverpool and Birmingham, and the smokeless fuel coalite, built the first production electric car in Wolverhampton in 1884, although the only documentation is a photograph from 1895.^[24]

Parker's long-held interest in the construction of more fuel-efficient vehicles led him to experiment with electric vehicles. He also may have been concerned about the malign effects smoke and pollution were having in London.^[25] Production of the car was in the hands of the Elwell-Parker Company, established in 1882 for the construction and sale of electric trams. The company merged with other rivals in 1888 to form the Electric Construction Corporation; this company had a virtual monopoly on the British electric car market in the 1890s. The company manufactured the first electric 'dog cart' in 1896.^[26]

France and the United Kingdom were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.^[8] German engineer Andreas Flocken built the first real electric car in 1888.^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]

Electric trains were also used to transport coal out of mines, as their motors did not use up precious oxygen. Before the pre-eminence of internal combustion engines, electric automobiles also held many speed and distance records.^[31] Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the 100 km/h (62 mph) speed barrier, by Camille Jenatzy on 29 April 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle Jamais Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph). Also notable was Ferdinand Porsche's design and construction of an all-wheel drive electric car, powered by a motor in each hub, which also set several records in the hands of its owner E.W. Hart.

The first electric car in the United States was developed in 1890–91 by William Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa; the vehicle was a six-passenger wagon capable of reaching a speed of 23 kilometres per hour (14 mph). It was not until 1895 that consumers began to devote attention to electric vehicles after A.L. Ryker introduced the first electric tricycles to the U.S.^[32]

Golden age

Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly in the late 1890s and early 1900s. Electric battery-powered taxis became available at the end of the 19th century. In London, Walter Bersey designed a fleet of such cabs and introduced them to the streets of London in 1897.^[33] They were soon nicknamed "Hummingbirds" due to the idiosyncratic humming noise they made.^[34] In the same year in New York City, the Samuel's Electric Carriage and Wagon Company began running 12 electric hansom cabs.^[35] The company ran until 1898 with up to 62 cabs operating until it was reformed by its financiers to form the Electric Vehicle Company.^[36]

Thomas Edison and an electric car in 1913

Electric vehicles had a number of advantages over their early-1900s competitors. They did not have the vibration, smell, and noise associated with gasoline cars. They also did not require gear changes. (While steam-powered cars also had no gear shifting, they suffered from long start-up times of up to 45 minutes on cold mornings.) The cars were also preferred because they did not require a manual effort to start, as did gasoline cars which featured a hand crank to start the engine.

Electric cars found popularity among well-heeled customers who used them as city cars, where their limited range proved to be even less of a disadvantage.

Acceptance of electric cars was initially hampered by a lack of power infrastructure, but by 1912, many homes were wired for electricity, enabling a surge in the popularity of the cars. In the United States by the turn of the century, 40 percent of automobiles were powered by steam, 38 percent by electricity, and 22 percent by gasoline. A total of 33,842 electric cars were registered in the United States, and the U.S. became the country where electric cars had gained the most acceptance.^[37] Most early electric vehicles were massive, ornate carriages designed for the upper-class customers that made them popular. They featured luxurious interiors and were replete with expensive materials. Sales of electric cars peaked in the early 1910s. There were over 300 listed manufacturers who produced a vehicle in the United States upto 1942.^[38]

Power as a service and General Vehicle

To overcome the limited operating range of electric vehicles, and the lack of recharging infrastructure, an exchangeable battery service was first proposed as early as 1896.^[39] The concept was first put into practice by Hartford Electric Light Company through the GeVeCo battery service and initially available for electric trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle from General Vehicle Company (GVC, a subsidiary of the General Electric Company) without a battery and the electricity was purchased from Hartford Electric through an exchangeable battery. The owner paid a variable per-mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover the maintenance and storage of the truck. Both vehicles and batteries were modified to facilitate a fast battery exchange. The service was provided between 1910 and 1924 and during that period covered more than 6 million miles. Beginning in 1917 a similar successful service was operated in Chicago for owners of Milburn Wagon Company cars who also could buy the vehicle without the batteries.^[39]

In New York City, in the pre-World War I era, ten electric vehicle companies banded together to form the New York Electric Vehicle Association.^[40] The association included manufacturers and dealers, among them General Motors' truck division, and the aforementioned General Vehicle division of General Electric, which claimed to have almost 2,000 operating vehicles in the metropolitan region.^[41] When opening their flagship department store, Lord and Taylor boasted of its electric vehicle fleet – numbering 38 trucks – and the conveyor system to efficiently load and unload goods.^[41]^[42]

1920s–1950s

Electric vehicle TAMA, produced by Tachikawa Aircraft Company in 1947. Mechanical Engineering Heritage (Japan) No. 40

After enjoying success at the beginning of the 20th century, the electric car began to lose its position in the automobile market. A number of developments contributed to this situation. By the 1920s an improved road infrastructure improved travel times, creating a need for vehicles with a greater range than that offered by electric cars. Worldwide discoveries of large petroleum reserves led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline, making gas-powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric cars were limited to urban use by their slow speed (no more than 24–32 km/h or 15–20 mph^[37]) and low range (50–65 km or 30–40 miles^[37]), and gasoline cars were now able to travel farther and faster than equivalent electrics.

Gasoline cars also overcame much of their negatives compared to electrics, in several areas. Whereas ICE cars originally had to be hand-cranked to start – a difficult and sometimes dangerous activity – the invention of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912^[43] eliminated the need of a hand starting crank. Further, while gasoline engines are inherently noisier than electric motors, the invention of the muffler by Milton O. Reeves and Marshall T. Reeves in 1897 significantly reduced the noise to tolerable levels. Finally, the initiation of mass production of gas-powered vehicles by Henry Ford brought their price down.^[44] By contrast, the price of similar electric vehicles continued to rise; by 1912, an electric car sold for almost double the price of a gasoline car.^[8]

The Henney Kilowatt, a 1961 production electric car

Most electric car makers stopped production at some point in the 1910s. Electric vehicles became popular for certain applications where their limited range did not pose major problems. Forklift trucks were electrically powered when they were introduced by Yale in 1923.^[45] In Europe, especially the United Kingdom, milk floats were powered by electricity, and for most of the 20th century the majority of the world's battery electric road vehicles were British milk floats.^[46] Electric golf carts were produced by Lektro as early as 1954.^[47] By the 1920s, the early heyday of electric cars had passed, and a decade later, the electric automobile industry had effectively disappeared. Michael Brian examines the social and technological reasons for the failure of electric cars in his book Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America.^[48]

Years passed without a major revival in the use of electric cars. Fuel-starved European countries fighting in World War II experimented with electric cars such as the British milk floats and the French Bréguet Aviation car, but overall, while ICE development progressed at a brisk pace, electric vehicle technology stagnated. In the late 1950s, Henney Coachworks and the National Union Electric Company, makers of Exide batteries, formed a joint venture to produce a new electric car, the Henney Kilowatt, based on the French Renault Dauphine. The car was produced in 36-volt and 72-volt configurations; the 72-volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km/h (60 mph) and could travel for nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the Kilowatt's improved performance with respect to previous electric cars, consumers found it^{[citation needed]} too expensive compared to equivalent gasoline cars of the time, and production ended in 1961.

1960s–1990s: Revival of interest

In 1959, American Motors Corporation (AMC) and Sonotone Corporation announced a joint research effort to consider producing an electric car powered by a "self-charging" battery.^[49] AMC had a reputation for innovation in economical cars while Sonotone had technology for making sintered plate nickel-cadmium batteries that could be recharged rapidly and weighed less than traditional lead-acid versions.^[50] That same year, Nu-Way Industries showed an experimental electric car with a one-piece plastic body that was to begin production in early 1960.^[49]

In the mid 1960s a few battery-electric concept cars appeared, such as the Scottish Aviation Scamp (1965),^[51] and an electric version of General Motors gasoline car, the Electrovair (1966).^[52] None of them entered production. The 1973 Enfield 8000 did make it into small-scale production, 112 were eventually produced.^[53] In 1967, AMC partnered with Gulton Industries to develop a new battery based on lithium and a speed controller designed by Victor Wouk.^[54] A nickel-cadmium battery supplied power to an all-electric 1969 Rambler American station wagon.^[54] Other "plug-in" experimental AMC vehicles developed with Gulton included the Amitron (1967) and the similar Electron (1977).

Three Lunar Roving Vehicles are currently parked on the Moon

On 31 July 1971, an electric car received the unique distinction of becoming the first manned vehicle to drive on the Moon; that car was the Lunar Roving Vehicle, which was first deployed during the Apollo 15 mission. The "Moon buggy" was developed by Boeing and GM subsidiary Delco Electronics (co-founded by Kettering)^[43] featured a DC drive motor in each wheel, and a pair of 36-volt silver-zinc potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries.

After years outside the limelight, the energy crises of the 1970s and 1980s brought about renewed interest in the perceived independence electric cars had from the fluctuations of the hydrocarbon energy market. However, vehicles such as the intensely-marketed Sinclair C5 failed, possibly because "global warming hadn't been invented then".^[55] General Motors created a concept car of another of their gasoline cars, the Electrovette (1976). At the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show, General Motors President Roger Smith unveiled the GM Impact electric concept car, along with the announcement that GM would build electric cars for sale to the public.

From the 1960s to the 1990s, a number of companies made battery electric vehicles converted from existing manufactured models, often using gliders. None were sold in large numbers, with sales hampered by high cost and a limited range. Most of these vehicles were sold to government agencies and electric utility companies. The passage of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1976 in the US provided government incentives for development of electric vehicles in the US.^[56] Electric Fuel Propulsion Corporation (now Apollo Energy Systems) produced the Electrosport (a converted AMC Hornet), the Mars I (a converted Renault Dauphine), and the Mars II (a converted Renault R-10). Jet Industries sold the Electra-Van 600 (a converted Subaru Sambar 600), the Electra-Van 750 (converted Mazda B2000/Ford Courier pickup trucks), the Electrica (converted Ford Escort/Mercury Lynx cars) and the Electrica 007 (converted Dodge Omni 024/Plymouth Horizon TC3 cars). U.S. Electricar Corp., based in Massachusetts, sold the Lectric Leopard, a converted Renault 5.^[57] Electric Vehicle Associates sold the Current Fare (a converted Ford Fairmont) and the Change of Pace (a converted AMC Pacer).^[58] U.S. Electricar, Inc., based in California, sold a converted Geo Prizm.^[59] Solectria Corporation (now Azure Dynamics) sold the Solectria Force (a converted Geo Metro) and the E10 (a converted Chevrolet S-10). Later, General Motors would also produce an electric S-10, the Chevrolet S-10 EV, based on the General Motors EV1.^[60]

In the early 1990s, the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the government of California's "clean air agency", began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles.^[61]^[62] In response, automakers developed electric models, including the Chrysler TEVan, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck, GM EV1 and S10 EV pickup, Honda EV Plus hatchback, Nissan lithium-battery Altra EV miniwagon and Toyota RAV4 EV. The automakers were accused of pandering to the wishes of CARB in order to continue to be allowed to sell cars in the lucrative Californian market, while failing to adequately promote their electric vehicles in order to create the impression that the consumers were not interested in the cars, all the while joining oil industry lobbyists in vigorously protesting CARB's mandate.^[62] GM's program came under particular scrutiny; in an unusual move, consumers were not allowed to purchase EV1s, but were instead asked to sign closed-end leases, meaning that the cars had to be returned to GM at the end of the lease period, with no option to purchase, despite leasee interest in continuing to own the cars.^[62] Chrysler, Toyota, and a group of GM dealers sued CARB in Federal court, leading to the eventual neutering of CARB's ZEV Mandate.^{[citation needed]}

After public protests by EV drivers' groups upset by the repossession of their cars, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EVs for sale to the general public during six months, up until 22 November 2002. Almost all other production electric cars were withdrawn from the market and were in some cases seen to have been destroyed by their manufacturers.^[62] Toyota continues to support the several hundred Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public and in fleet usage. GM famously de-activated the few EV1s that were donated to engineering schools and museums.^[63]

Throughout the 1990s, interest in fuel-efficient or environmentally friendly cars declined among consumers in the United States, who instead favored sport utility vehicles, which were affordable to operate despite their poor fuel efficiency thanks to lower gasoline prices. Domestic U.S. automakers chose to focus their product lines around the truck-based vehicles, which enjoyed larger profit margins than the smaller cars which were preferred in places like Europe or Japan.

Most electric vehicles on the world roads were low-speed, low-range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs). Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011.^[64] As of July 2006^[update], there were between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed battery-powered vehicles in use in the United States, up from about 56,000 in 2004.^[65] North America's top selling NEV is the Global Electric Motorcars (GEM) vehicles, with more than 50,000 units sold worldwide by mid 2014.^[66] The world's two largest NEV markets in 2011 were the United States, with 14,737 units sold, and France, with 2,231 units.^[67] Other micro electric cars sold in Europe was the Kewet, since 1991, and replaced by the Buddy, launched in 2008.^[68] Also the Th!nk City was launched in 2008 but production was halted due to financial difficulties.^[69] Production restarted in Finland in December 2009.^[70] The Th!nk was sold in several European countries and the U.S.^[71]^[72] In June 2011 Think Global filed for bankruptcy and production was halted.^[73] Worldwide sales reached 1,045 units by March 2011.^[74] A total of 200,000 low-speed small electric cars were sold in China in 2013, most of which are powered by lead-acid batteries. These electric vehicles are not considered by the government as new energy vehicles due to safety and environmental concerns, and consequently, do not enjoy the same benefits as highway legal plug-in electric cars.^[75]

2000s: Modern highway-capable electric cars

The emergence of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology led to the development of modern electric road vehicles.^[76] The MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor), invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959,^[77]^[78] led to the development of the power MOSFET by Hitachi in 1969,^[79] and the single-chip microprocessor by Federico Faggin, Marcian Hoff, Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971.^[80] The power MOSFET and the microcontroller, a type of single-chip microprocessor, led to significant advances in electric vehicle technology. MOSFET power converters allowed operation at much higher switching frequencies, made it easier to drive, reduced power losses, and significantly reduced prices, while single-chip microcontrollers could manage all aspects of the drive control and had the capacity for battery management.^[76]

Another important technology that enabled modern highway-capable electric cars is the lithium-ion battery.^[81] It was invented by John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino in the 1980s,^[82] and commercialized by Sony and Asahi Kasei in 1991.^[83] The lithium-ion battery was responsible for the development of electric vehicles capable of long-distance travel.^[81]

California electric car maker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on the Tesla Roadster, which was first delivered to customers in 2008.^[84] The Roadster was the first highway legal serial production all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge.^[85] Since 2008, Tesla sold approximately 2,450 Roadsters in over 30 countries through December 2012.^[86] Tesla sold the Roadster until early 2012, when its supply of Lotus Elise gliders ran out, as its contract with Lotus Cars for 2,500 gliders expired at the end of 2011.^[87]^[88] Tesla stopped taking orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market in August 2011,^[89]^[90] and the 2012 Tesla Roadster was sold in limited numbers only in Europe, Asia and Australia.^[91]^[92]

The Mitsubishi i-MiEV was launched in Japan in 2009

The Mitsubishi i-MiEV was launched in Japan for fleet customers in July 2009, and for individual customers in April 2010,^[93]^[94]^[95] followed by sales to the public in Hong Kong in May 2010, and Australia in July 2010 via leasing.^[96]^[97] The i-MiEV was launched in Europe in December 2010, including a rebadged version sold in Europe as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero.^[98]^[99] The market launch in the Americas began in Costa Rica in February 2011, followed by Chile in May 2011.^[100]^[101] Fleet and retail customer deliveries in the U.S. and Canada began in December 2011.^[102]^[103]^[104] Accounting for all vehicles of the iMiEV brand, Mitsubishi reports around 27,200 units sold or exported since 2009 through December 2012, including the minicab MiEVs sold in Japan, and the units rebadged and sold as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero in the European market.^[105]

Senior leaders at several large automakers, including Nissan and General Motors, have stated that the Roadster was a catalyst which demonstrated that there is pent-up consumer demand for more efficient vehicles. In an August 2009 edition of The New Yorker, GM vice-chairman Bob Lutz was quoted as saying, "All the geniuses here at General Motors kept saying lithium-ion technology is 10 years away, and Toyota agreed with us – and boom, along comes Tesla. So I said, 'How come some tiny little California startup, run by guys who know nothing about the car business, can do this, and we can't?' That was the crowbar that helped break up the log jam."^[106]

2010s

The Nissan Leaf, introduced in Japan and the United States in December 2010, became the first modern all-electric, zero tailpipe emission five door family hatchback to be produced for the mass market from a major manufacturer.^[108]^[109] As of January 2013^[update], the Leaf is also available in Australia, Canada and 17 European countries.^[110]

The Better Place network was the first modern commercial deployment of the battery swapping model. The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the first mass production electric car enable with switchable battery technology and sold for the Better Place network in Israel and Denmark.^[111] Better Place launched its first battery-swapping station in Israel, in Kiryat Ekron, near Rehovot in March 2011. The battery exchange process took five minutes.^[112] As of December 2012^[update], there were 17 battery switch stations fully operational in Denmark enabling customers to drive anywhere across the country in an electric car.^[113] By late 2012 the company began to suffer financial difficulties, and decided to put on hold the roll out in Australia and reduce its non-core activities in North America, as the company decided to concentrate its resources on its two existing markets.^[114]^[115]^[116] On 26 May 2013, Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel.^[117] The company's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US$850 million in private capital, and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Less than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark.^[118]^[119]

The Smart electric drive, Wheego Whip LiFe, Mia electric, Volvo C30 Electric, and the Ford Focus Electric were launched for retail customers during 2011. The BYD e6, released initially for fleet customers in 2010, began retail sales in Shenzhen, China in October 2011.^[120] The Bolloré Bluecar was released in December 2011 and deployed for use in the Autolib' carsharing service in Paris.^[121] Leasing to individual and corporate customers began in October 2012 and is limited to the Île-de-France area.^[122] In February 2011, the Mitsubishi i MiEV became the first electric car to sell more than 10,000 units, including the models badged in Europe as Citroën C-Zero and Peugeot. The record was officially registered by Guinness World Records. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf overtook the i MiEV as the best selling all-electric car ever,^[123] and by February 2013 global sales of the Leaf reached the 50,000 unit mark.^[110]

The next Tesla vehicle, the Model S, was released in the U.S. on 22 June 2012^[124] and the first delivery of a Model S to a retail customer in Europe took place on 7 August 2013.^[125] Deliveries in China began on 22 April 2014.^[126] The next model was the Tesla Model X.^[127] Other models released to the market in 2012 and 2013 include the BMW ActiveE, Coda, Renault Fluence Z.E., Honda Fit EV, Toyota RAV4 EV, Renault Zoe, Roewe E50, Mahindra e2o, Chevrolet Spark EV, Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG Electric Drive, Fiat 500e, Volkswagen e-Up!, BMW i3, and Kandi EV. Toyota released the Scion iQ EV in the U.S. (Toyota eQ in Japan) in 2013. The car production is limited to 100 units. The first 30 units were delivered to the University of California, Irvine in March 2013 for use in its Zero Emission Vehicle-Network Enabled Transport (ZEV-NET) carsharing fleet. Toyota announced that 90 out of the 100 vehicles produced globally will be placed in carsharing demonstration projects in the United States and the rest in Japan.^[128]

The Coda sedan went out of production in 2013, after selling only about 100 units in California. Its manufacturer, Coda Automotive, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on 1 May 2013. The company stated that it expects to emerge from the bankruptcy process to focus on energy storage solutions as it has decided to abandon car manufacturing.^[129]

The Tesla Model S ranked as the top selling plug-in electric car in North America during the first quarter of 2013 with 4,900 cars sold, ahead of the Nissan Leaf (3,695).^[130] European retail deliveries of the Tesla Model S began in Oslo in August 2013,^[131] and during its first full month in the market, the Model S ranked as the top selling car in Norway with 616 units delivered, representing a market share of 5.1% of all the new cars sold in the country in September 2013, becoming the first electric car to top the new car sales ranking in any country, and contributing to a record all-electric car market share of 8.6% of new car sales during that month.^[132]^[133] In October 2013, an electric car was the best selling car in the country for a second month in a row. This time was the Nissan Leaf with 716 units sold, representing a 5.6% of new car sales that month.^[134]^[135]

The Renault–Nissan Alliance reached global sales of 100,000 all-electric vehicles in July 2013.^[138] The 100,000th customer was a U.S. student who bought a Nissan Leaf.^[139] In mid January 2014, global sales of the Nissan Leaf reached the 100,000 unit milestone, representing a 45% market share of worldwide pure electric vehicles sold since 2010.^[140]

As of June 2014^[update], there were over 500,000 plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans in the world, with the U.S. leading plug-in electric car sales with a 45% share of global sales.^[141]^[142] In September 2014, sales of plug-in electric cars in the United States reached the 250,000 unit milestone.^[143] Global cumulative sales of the Tesla Model S passed the 50,000 unit milestone in October 2014.^[144] In November 2014 the Renault–Nissan Alliance reached 200,000 all-electric vehicles delivered globally, representing a 58% share of the global light-duty all-electric market segment.^[145]

The world's top selling all-electric cars in 2014 were the Nissan Leaf (61,507), Tesla Model S (31,655), BMW i3 (16,052), and the Renault Zoe (11,323). Accounting for plug-in hybrids, the Leaf and the Model S also ranked first and second correspondingly among the world's top 10 selling plug-in electric cars.^[137] All-electric models released to the retail customers in 2014 include the BMW Brilliance Zinoro 1E, Chery eQ, Geely-Kandi Panda EV, Zotye Zhidou E20, Kia Soul EV, Volkswagen e-Golf, Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive, and Venucia e30.

General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Bolt EV concept car at the 2015 North American International Auto Show.^[147] The Bolt is scheduled for availability in late 2016 as a model year 2017.^[148] GM anticipates the Bolt will deliver an all-electric range more than 320 km (200 miles), with pricing starting at US$37,500 before any applicable government incentives.^[149] The European version, marketed as the Opel Ampera-e, will go into production in 2017.^[150]

In May 2015, global sales of highway legal all-electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles passed the 500,000 unit milestone, accounting for sales since 2008. Out these, Nissan accounts for about 35%, Tesla Motors about 15%, and Mitsubishi about 10%.^[151] Also in May 2015, the Renault Zoe and the BMW i3 passed the 25,000 unit global sales milestone.^[152] Worldwide sales of the Model S passed the 75,000 unit milestone in June 2015.^[144]

By early June 2015, the Renault–Nissan Alliance continued as the leading all-electric vehicle manufacturer with global sales of over 250,000 pure electric vehicles representing about half of the global light-duty all-electric market segment. Nissan sales totaled 185,000 units, which includes the Nissan Leaf and the e-NV200 van. Renault has sold 65,000 electric vehicles, and its line-up includes the ZOE passenger car, the Kangoo Z.E. van, the SM3 Z.E. (previously Fluence Z.E.) sedan and the Twizy heavy quadricycle.^[153]

By mid-September 2015, the global stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the one million sales milestone, with the pure electrics capturing about 62% of global sales.^[154] The United States is the plug-in segment market leader with a stock of over 363,000 plug-in electric cars delivered since 2008 through August 2015, representing 36.3% of global sales.^[154] The state of California is the largest plug-in car regional market, with more than 158,000 units sold between December 2010 and June 2015, representing 46.5% of all plug-in cars sold in the U.S.^[155]^[156]^[157]^[158] Until December 2014, California not only had more plug-in electric vehicles than any other state in the nation, but also more than any other country.^[159]^[160]

As of August 2015^[update], China ranked as the world's second top selling country plug-in market, with over 157,000 units sold since 2011 (15.7%), followed by Japan with more than 120,000 plug-in units sold since 2009 (12.1%).^[154] As of June 2015^[update], over 310,000 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in the European market since 2010.^[161]^[162] European sales are led by Norway, followed by the Netherlands, and France.^[154] In the heavy-duty segment, China is the world's leader, with over 65,000 buses and other commercial vehicles sold through August 2015.^[154]

As of December 2015^[update], global sales of electric cars were led by the Nissan Leaf with over 200,000 units sold making the Leaf the world's top selling highway-capable electric car in history. The Tesla Model S, with global deliveries of more than 100,000 units, listed as the world's second best selling all-electric car of all-time.^[163] The Model S ranked as the world's best selling plug-in electric vehicle in 2015, up from second best in 2014.^[164]^[165] The Model S was also the top selling plug-in car in the U.S. in 2015.^[166] Most models released in the world's markets to retail customers during 2015 were plug-in hybrids. The only new series production all-electric cars launched up to October 2015 were the BYD e5 and the Tesla Model X, together with several variants of the Tesla Model S line-up.^[167]

The Tesla Model 3 was unveiled on 31 March 2016. With pricing starting at US$35,000 and an all-electric range of 345 km (215 miles), the Model 3 is Tesla Motors first vehicle aimed for the mass market. Before the unveiling event, over 115,000 people had reserved the Model 3.^[169] As of 7 April 2016^[update], one week after the event, Tesla Motors reported over 325,000 reservations, more than triple the 107,000 Model S cars Tesla had sold by the end of 2015. These reservations represent potential sales of over US$14 billion.^[170]^[171] As of 31 March 2016^[update], Tesla Motors has sold almost 125,000 electric cars worldwide since delivery of its first Tesla Roadster in 2008.^[172] Tesla reported the number of net reservations totaled about 373,000 as of 15 May 2016^[update], after about 8,000 customer cancellations and about 4,200 reservations canceled by the automaker because these appeared to be duplicates from speculators.^[173]^[174]

The Hyundai Ioniq Electric was released in South Korea in July 2016, and sold over 1,000 units during its first two months in the market.^[175] The Renault-Nissan Alliance achieved the milestone of 350,000 electric vehicles sold globally in August 2016, and also set an industry record of 100,000 electric vehicles sold in a single year.^[176] Nissan global electric vehicle sales passed the 250,000 unit milestone also in August 2016.^[176] Renault global electric vehicle sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in early September 2016.^[177] Global sales of the Tesla Model X passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016, with most cars delivered in the United States.^[178]

Cumulative global sales of pure electric passenger cars and utility vans passed the 1 million unit milestone in September 2016.^[1] Global sales of the Tesla Model S achieved the 150,000 unit milestone in November 2016, four years and five months after its introduction, and just five more months than it took the Nissan Leaf to achieve the same milestone.^[180] Norway achieved the milestone of 100,000 all-electric vehicles registered in December 2016.^[181] Retail deliveries of the 383 km (238 miles) Chevrolet Bolt EV began in the San Francisco Bay Area on 13 December 2016.^[179] In December 2016, Nissan reported that Leaf owners worldwide achieved the milestone of 3 billion km (1.9 billion miles) driven collectively through November 2016, saving the equivalent of nearly 500 million kg (1,100 million lb) of CO₂ emissions.^[182] Global Nissan Leaf sales passed 250,000 units delivered in December 2016.^[183]^[184] The Tesla Model S was the world's best-selling plug-in electric car in 2016 for the second year running, with 50,931 units delivered globally.^[168]^[185]

In December 2016, Norway became the first country where 5% of all registered passenger cars was a plug-in electric.^[186] When new car sales in Norway are categorised by powertrain or fuel, nine of the top ten best-selling models in 2016 were electric-drive models. The Norwegian electric-drive segment achieved a combined market share of 40.2% of new passenger car sales in 2016, consisting of 15.7% for all-electric cars, 13.4% for plug-in hybrids, and 11.2% for conventional hybris.^[187] A record monthly market share for the plug-in electric passenger segment in any country was achieved in Norway in January 2017 with 37.5% of new car sales; the plug-in hybrid segment reached a 20.0% market share of new passenger cars, and the all-electric car segment had a 17.5% market share.^[188] Also in January 2017, the electrified passenger car segment, consisting of plug-in hybrids, all-electric cars and conventional hybrids, for the first time ever surpassed combined sales of cars with a conventional diesel or gasoline engine, with a market share of 51.4% of new car sales that month.^[188]^[189] For many years Norwegian electric vehicles have been subsidised by approximately 50%, and have several other benefits, such as use of bus lanes and free parking.^[190] Many of these perks have been extended to 2020.^[191]

In February 2017 Consumer Reports named Tesla as the top car brand in the United States and ranked it 8th among global carmakers.^[193] Deliveries of the Tesla Model S passed the 200,000 unit milestone during the fourth quarter of 2017.^[194] Global sales of the Nissan Leaf achieved the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018.^[195]

In September 2018, the Norwegian market share of all-electric cars reached 45.3% and plug-in hybrids 14.9%, for a combined market share of the plug-in car segment of 60.2% of new car registrations that month, becoming the world's highest-ever monthly market share for the plug-in electric passenger segment in Norway and in any country. Accounting for conventional hybrids, the electrified segment achieved an all-time record 71.5% market share in September 2018.^[196]^[197] In October 2018, Norway became the first country where 1 in every 10 passenger cars registered is a plug-in electric vehicle.^[192] Norway ended 2018 with plug-in market share of 49.1%, meaning that every second new passenger car sold in the country in 2018 was a plug-in electric. The market share for the all-electric segment was 31.2% in 2018.^[198]

Tesla delivered its 100,000th Model 3 in October 2018.^[201] U.S. sales of the Model 3 reached the 100,000 unit milestone in November 2018, quicker than any previous model sold in the country.^[202] The Model 3 was the top-selling plug-in electric car in the U.S. for 12 consecutive months since January 2018, ending 2018 as the best-selling plug-in with an estimated all-time record of 139,782 units delivered, the first time a plug-in car sold more than 100 thousand units in a single year.^[203]^[204]^[205] In 2018, for the first time in any country, an all-electric car topped annual sales of the passenger car segment. The Nissan Leaf was Norway's best selling new passenger car model in 2018.^[206]^[207] The Tesla Model 3 listed as the world's best selling plug-in electric car in 2018.^[208]

In January 2019, with 148,046 units sold since inception in the American market, the Model 3 overtook the Model S to become the all-time best selling all-electric car in the U.S.^[209] Until 2019, the Nissan Leaf was the world's all-time top selling highway legal electric car, with global sales of 450,000 units through December 2019.^[199] The Tesla Model 3 ended 2019 as the world's best selling plug-in electric car for the second consecutive year, with just over 300,000 units delivered.^[208]^[5] Also, the Model 3 topped the annual list of best selling passenger car models in the overall market in two countries, Norway and the Netherlands.^[210]^[211]

The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars reached 5.1 million units in December 2018, consisting of 3.3 million all-electric cars (65%) and 1.8 million plug-in hybrid cars (35%).^[212]^[208] The global ratio between BEVs and PHEVs has been shifting towards fully electric cars, it went from 56:44 in 2012 to 60:40 in 2015, and rose from 69:31 in 2018 to 74:26 in 2019.^[5]^[208]^[4] Despite the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 motor vehicles on the world's roads at the end of 2018.^[213]

2020s

The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Nissan Leaf in early 2020 to become the world's best selling electric car ever, with more than 500,000 sold by March 2020.^[200] Tesla also became the first auto manufacturer to produce 1 million electric cars in March 2020.^[215] Global sales of the Model 3 passed the 1 million milestone in June 2021, the first electric car model to do so.^[6]^[214]

The Nissan Leaf achieved the milestone of 500,000 units sold globally in early December 2020, 10 years after its inception.^[216] Combined sales of plug-in electric cars and light-duty commercial vans since 2010 achieved the 10 million unit milestone by the end of 2020.^[3]

Electric bicycle

The principal manufacturer of e-bikes globally is China, with 2009 seeing the manufacturer of 22.2 million units. In the world Geoby is the leading manufacturers of E-bikes. Pedego is the best selling in the U.S. China accounts for nearly 92% of the market worldwide. In China the number of electric bicycles on the road was 120 million in 2010. Jiangsu Yadea, an electric bicycle producer of renown in China, leads the ranking of China National Light Industry Council (CNLIC) electric bicycle industry for three years. It retains capacity of nearly 6 million electric bicycles a year.

In 1997, Charger Electric Bicycle was the first U.S. company to come out with a pedelec.

Timeline of milestones

Date	Timeline of electric vehicle milestones
1875	World's first electric tram line operated in Sestroretsk near Saint Petersburg, Russia, invented and tested by Fyodor Pirotsky.^[217]^[218]
1881	World's first commercially successful electric tram, the Gross-Lichterfelde tramway in Lichterfelde near Berlin in Germany built by Werner von Siemens who contacted Pirotsky. It initially drew current from the rails, with overhead wire being installed in 1883.
1882	The trolleybus dates back to 29 April 1882, when Dr. Ernst Werner Siemens demonstrated his "Elektromote" in a Berlin suburb. This experiment continued until 13 June 1882
1883	Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram, Vienna, Austria, first electric tram powered by overhead wire.
1884	Thomas Parker built a practical production electric car in Wolverhampton using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries.
Dec 1996	Launch of the limited production General Motors EV1^[219]^[220]
Feb 2008	First Tesla Roadster delivered, becoming the first highway legal electric car to use lithium-ion battery^[221]
Jul 2009	Launch of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, the first modern highway legal series production electric car^[95]
Dec 2010	Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt deliveries began^[222]
2011	The Nissan Leaf passed the Mitsubishi i MiEV as the world's all-time best selling all-electric car^[123]
Jun 2012	Launch of the Tesla Model S^[223]
Mar 2014	1% of all cars in use in Norway are plug-ins^[224]
Sep 2015	Cumulative global plug-in sales passed 1 million units.^[225]
Nov 2016	Global all-electric car/van sales passed 1 million.^[1]
Dec 2016	Cumulative global plug-in sales passed 2 million units^[226]
Dec 2016	5% of passenger cars on Norwegian roads are plug-ins^[186]
Early 2017	1 millionth domestic new energy car sold in China^[227]^[228]
Jul 2017	Launch of the Tesla Model 3^[229]
Nov 2017	Cumulative global plug-in sales passed 3 million units^[212]
Dec 2017	Annual global sales passed the 1 million unit mark^[230]
	5% of all cars in use in Norway are all-electric.^[231]
	Annual global market share passed 1% for the first time^[230]
First half 2018	1 millionth plug-in electric car sold in Europe^[232]
Sep 2018	1 millionth plug-in electric car sold in the U.S.^[233]
Sep 2018	2 millionth new energy vehicle sold in China^[234] (includes heavy-duty commercial vehicles)
Oct 2018	10% of passenger cars on Norwegian roads are plug-ins^[235]
Nov 2018	500,000th plug-in car sold in California^[236]
Dec 2018	Annual global sales passed the 2 million unit mark^[208]^[237]
Dec 2018	Tesla Model 3 becomes first plug-in to exceed 100,000 sales in a single year^[238]
Dec 2019	One out of two new passenger car registered in Norway in 2019 was a plug-in electric car^[239]
Early 2020	The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Nissan Leaf as the world's best selling plug-in electric car in history^[200]
Mar 2020	The Tesla Model 3 is the first electric car to sell more than 500,000 units since inception.^[200]
Mar 2020	Tesla, Inc. becomes the first auto manufacturer to produce 1 million electric cars^[215]
Apr 2020	10% of all cars on the road in Norway are all-electric^[240]
Dec 2020	Nissan Leaf global sales reached 500,000 units.^[216]
	Cumulative global plug-in sales passed the 10 million unit milestone ^[3]
	The Norwegian plug-in car segment achieved a record annual market share of 74.7% of new car sales.^[241]
	Over 15% of all cars on Norwegian roads are plug-in electric.^[242]
June 2021	Tesla Model 3 global sales passed 1,000,000 units.^[214]

Notable production vehicles

Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order):^[243]^[244]

Name	Production years	Number produced	Range	Notability
Baker Electric	1899–1915		80 km (50 miles)	One of the first electric cars. Largest electric automaker in the world, as of 1906.
Studebaker Electric	1902–1912	1,841	30–80 miles	One of the first electric cars.
Detroit Electric	1907–1939	13,000^[245]	130 km (80 miles)	Over 13,000 manufactured, making it one of the most successful early electric vehicles.
Henney Kilowatt	1958–1960	<100		First mass production electric car since they fell out of favour in the early 1900s.
Sebring-Vanguard Citicar	1974–1982	4,444 including variants^[246]	Approximately 65 km (40 miles)	Most popular electric car of its time, post-war.
General Motors EV1	1996–2003	1,117	255 km (160 miles)	First purpose-designed electric vehicle of the modern era from a major automaker and the first GM car designed to be an electric vehicle from the outset.
Honda EV Plus	1997–1999	~300	130–175 km (80–110 miles)	First known vehicle from a major automaker to eschew the use of lead-acid batteries in favour of NiMH.
Toyota RAV4 EV	1997–2002	1,900^[247]	140 km (87 miles)	First electric vehicle to be publicly sold by Toyota
REVAi	2001–2012	4,000+^[248]	80 km (50 miles)
Tesla Roadster	2008–2012	2,500	355 km (220 miles)	First vehicle by Tesla, Inc.
Mitsubishi i MiEV (Peugeot iOn/Citroën C-Zero)	2009–	50,000 (2015)^[249]	160 km (100 miles) (Japanese cycle) 100 km (62 miles) (EPA cycle)	First significantly popular production electric vehicle (over 50,000 sold).
Nissan Leaf	2010–	470,000 (2020)^[250]	175 km (109 miles) (New European Driving Cycle)	Surpassed the Mitsubishi i-MiEV to become the most successful electric vehicle until the Tesla Model 3. Over 500,000 sold.
BYD F3DM	2010-		97 km (60 miles)	First mass-produced plug-in hybrid automobile.
Renault Kangoo Z.E.	2011–	50,000 (2020)^[251]^[252]		As of December 2019, the top selling all-electric light commercial vehicle in Europe.
Tesla Model S	2012–	200,000 (2017)^[194]	560 km (348 miles) Performance mode 402 miles (647 km) Long Range Plus ^[253]	First clean-slate design from Tesla, Inc.
Renault Zoe	2013–	200,000 (2020)^[168]^[252]		Since 2020, Europe's all-time best selling plug-in electric car.
BMW i3	2013–	165,000 (2020)^[254]	130 to 160 km (80 to 100 miles)^[255]	First purpose-designed electric car from BMW.
Chevrolet Bolt	2017–	51,600 (2018)^[256]	238 miles (383 km)^[257]
Tesla Model 3^[258]	2017–	More than 500,000 by March 2020^[200]	355 km (220 miles) Standard version, 500 km (310 miles) Long Range version	Most successful electric car worldwide, as of 2020.

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^ Cobb, Jeff (1 June 2015). "Renault-Nissan And Leaf Lead All in Global EV Proliferation". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 14 June 2015. About 510,000 battery electric cars and light-duty vans have been sold worldwide by May 2015.
^ Cobb, Jeff (15 June 2015). "Three More Plug-in Cars Cross 25,000 Sales Milestone". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
^ Groupe Renault (June 2015). "Ventes Mensuelles" [Monthly Sales] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 26 June 2015. Includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on "Ventes mensuelles (mai 2015)" to download the files "XLSX - 187 Ko" for CYTD 2015 sales through May, and open the tab "Sales by Model".
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Cobb, Jeff (16 September 2015). "One Million Global Plug-In Sales Milestone Reached". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 16 September 2015. Cumulative global sales totaled about 1,004,000 highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty vehicles by mid-September 2015.
^ Cobb, Jeff (18 March 2015). "Californians Bought More Plug-in Cars Than China Last Year". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
^ Ohnsman, Alan (9 September 2014). "Californians Propel Plug-In Car Sales With 40% of Market". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 9 September 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2014.
^ "California Auto Outlook Covering Fourth Quarter 2014: New Light Vehicle Registrations Likely to Exceed 1.9 million units in 2015" (PDF). California New Car Dealers Association (CNCDA). February 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015. Registrations through December 2014 since 2010.
^ "California New Vehicle Market Continues to Post Impressive Gains" (PDF). California New Car Dealers Association (CNCDA). August 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 10 October 2015. Registrations through June 2015 since 2011. Revised figures for 2014.
^ Medina, Jennifer (21 September 2014). "Jerry Brown Seeks More Electric Cars in California". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
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^ Schreffler, Roger (23 September 2015). "PSA, Toyota Lead Way as European Cars Get Cleaner". Ward's Auto. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2015. Cumulative plug-in hybrid and all-electric sales in Europe totaled 233,022 units as of December 2014.
^ Amiot, Maxime (10 September 2015). "Quand l'hybride rechargeable fait de l'ombre à la voiture électrique" [When the plug-in hybrid overshadows the electric car]. Les Échos (in French). France. Retrieved 16 September 2015. A total of 77,259 plug-in electric cars were sold in Europe during the first half of 2015, consisting of 40,558 all-electric cars and 36,701 plug-in hybrids.
^ Cobb, Jeff (15 December 2015). "Tesla Model S Crossed 100,000 Sales Milestone This Month". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 17 December 2015. Accounting for global cumulative sales by December 2015, plug-in electric car sales are led by the Nissan Leaf (200,000), followed by the Tesla Model S (100,000). As of November 2015^[update], Mitsubishi i-MiEV family (~50,000), BYD Qin (45,275), BMW i3 (38,581), Renault Zoe (36,040), and the Ford Fusion Energi (26,742). Combines sales of the top 10 PEV models represent almost 50% of cumulative global PEV sales through November 2015)
^ Cobb, Jeff (12 January 2016). "Tesla Model S Was World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
^ Cobb, Jeff (11 February 2015). "2014's Top-10 Global Best-Selling Plug-in Cars". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 11 February 2015. A total of 31,655 units were sold worldwide in 2014. Global cumulative sales since June 2012 totaled 56,782 Model S cars by the end of 2014.
^ Cobb, Jeff (6 January 2016). "December 2015 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
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^ ^a ^b ^c Cobb, Jeff (31 January 2017). "Tesla Model S Is World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car For Second Year in a Row". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 4 February 2017. See also detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs.
^ Stoll, John (10 February 2016). "Tesla's Musk: Model 3 Orders Surpassed 115,000 Within 24 Hours". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
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^ Baker, David R. (1 April 2016). "Tesla Model 3 reservations top 232,000". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2 April 2016. Tesla Motors had sold 107,000 Model S cars by the end of 2015
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^ "Hyundai's Ioniq EV sales top 1,000 units". Yonhap News Agency. 12 September 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
^ ^a ^b "Renault-Nissan Alliance hits milestone of 350,000 electric vehicles sold, maintains position as global EV leader" (Press release). Paris/Yokohama: Renault-Nissan Alliance. 13 September 2016. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 13 September 2016. The Alliance has sold its 350,000th electric vehicle since December 2010, when the Nissan LEAF went on sale. The milestone was achieved in August 2016. The Alliance also set an industry record of 100,000 EVs sold in a single year.
^ "Renault hands over the key to its 100,000th electric vehicle" (Press release). Oslo: Groupe Renault. 9 September 2016. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
^ Kane, Mark (14 September 2016). "Tesla Model X Crosses The 10,000 Sold Mark". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
^ ^a ^b Cobb, Jeff. "First Chevy Bolt EVs Delivered Today". HybridCars.com. Archived from the original on 14 December 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
^ Cobb, Jeff (5 December 2016). "Tesla Model S Is Second Plug-in Car To Cross 150,000 Sales Milestone". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 5 December 2016. The Volt/Ampera family of vehicles is the world's all-time third best selling plug-in electric car after the Nissan Leaf (240,000), and the Tesla Model S (over 150,000), with 130,500 vehicles sold globally through November 2016.
^ Frydenlund, Ståle (13 December 2016). "Norway now has 100,000 electric cars". Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 13 December 2016.
^ "New Nissan Electric Café opens in Paris as the brand celebrates three billion EV kilometres worldwide" (Press release). Paris: Nissan Newsroom Europe. 16 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
^ "Nissan Intelligent Mobility at CES" (Press release). Las Vegas: Nissan USA. 5 January 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
^ Cobb, Jeff (9 January 2017). "Nissan's Quarter-Millionth Leaf Means It's The Best-Selling Plug-in Car in History". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 10 January 2017. As of December 2016^[update], the Nissan Leaf is the world's best-selling plug-in car in history with more than 250,000 units delivered, followed by the Tesla Model S with over 158,000 sales through November 2016. These are the only plug-in electric cars so far with over 100,000 global sales.
^ Sharan, Zachary (4 February 2017). "Tesla Model S & Nissan LEAF Clocked As World's Best-Selling Electric Cars In 2016". EV Volumes. CleanTechnica.com. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
^ ^a ^b Cobb, Jeff (17 January 2017). "Top 10 Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries of 2016". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
^ "Bilåret 2016 – status og trender" [Car sales 2016 - status and trends] (PDF). Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (in Norwegian). 10 January 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
^ ^a ^b "Bilsalget i januar" [Car sales in January]. Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (in Norwegian). February 2017. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2017. A total of 5,457 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in January 207, consisting of: 2,289 new electric cars, 494 used imported all-electric cars, 2,609 new plug-in hybrid cars, 54 new all-electric vans, and 11 used imported all-electric vans. Sales of new plug-in hybrids achieved a market share of 20.0%, all-electric cars 17.5% (excluding FCVs), conventional hybrids 13.9%, diesel cars excluding hybrids 23.9% and gasoline cars excluding hybrids 24.7%.
^ Moberg, Knut (6 February 2017). "Bilsalget i januar 2017 - BMW foran Toyota" [Car sales in January 2017 - BMW surpassed Toyota]. Dinside.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved 9 February 2017.
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^ ^a ^b Kane, Mark (7 October 2018). "10% Of Norway's Passenger Vehicles Are Plug Ins". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 7 November 2018.
^ Bartlett, Jeff S. (28 February 2017). "Which Car Brands Make the Best Vehicles?". Consumer Reports. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
^ ^a ^b Cobb, Jeff (22 January 2018). "Tesla Quietly Sold 200,000th Model S Last Year". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 20 October 2018. "Tesla sold its 200,000 Model S in the fourth quarter of 2017, in October or early November, becoming the second plug-in car to cross this sales threshold after the Nissan Leaf (300,000 units by early 2017). As of December 2017^[update], Tesla reported global sales of 212,874 Model S cars."
^ "Nissan delivers 300,000th Nissan LEAF" (Press release). Yokohama: Nissan. 8 January 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
^ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (October 2018). "Bilsalget i september" [Car sales in September] (in Norwegian). OFV. Archived from the original on 24 October 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2018. The market share of all-electric cars reached 45.3% and plug-in hybrids 14.9%, for a combined market share of the plug-in car segment of 60.2% of new car registrations in September 2018.
^ Kane, Mark (2 October 2018). "Plug-ins reach record market share in Norway". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
^ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (2 January 2019). "Bilsalget i 2018" [Car sales in 2018] (in Norwegian). OFV. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
^ ^a ^b "The "E" side of EV: Nissan brings excitement from the road to the track with LEAF Nismo RC unleashed for the first time in Europe" (Press release). Valencia, Spain: Nissan Europe. 20 January 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
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^ Halvorson, Bengt (8 November 2018). "Finalist for Green Car Reports Best Car To Buy 2019: Tesla Model 3". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
^ Loveday, Eric (4 December 2018). "Tesla Model 3 Sales Charge Way Past Milestone of 100,000 in U.S." InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 4 December 2018.
^ Mark Kane (3 January 2019). "U.S. Tesla Sales In December 2018 Up By 249%". Inside EVs. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
^ Steven Loveday (7 January 2019). "December 2018 U.S. EV Sales Recap: Over 360K Secured!". Inside EVs. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
^ Kane, Mark (24 January 2019). "US Plug-In Electric Car Sales Charted: December 2018". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 24 January 2019. See Graph: "Top 10 U.S. Plug-in cars (cumulative sales)" and "U.S. Plug-in Car Sales (cumulative)"
^ Haugneland, Petter (4 January 2019). "Nissan LEAF mest solgte bilmodell i 2018" [Nissan LEAF is the most sold car model in 2018] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 10 January 2019.
^ Øystein Fossum (5 January 2019). "Dette var nordmenns favoritt-biler i 2018" [These were Norwegians' favorite cars in 2018] (in Norwegian). Dinside.no. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Jose, Pontes (31 January 2019). "Global Top 20 - December 2018". EVSales.com. Retrieved 31 January 2019. "Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, with a BEV:PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a market share of 2.1%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2018, followed by BYD."
^ Kane, Mark (4 February 2019). "US Plug-In Electric Car Sales Charted: January 2019". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 6 February 2019. See Graph: "Top 10 U.S. Plug-in cars (cumulative sales)" In January 209 the Tesla Model 3 (148,046) overtook the Model S (144,767). The Chevrolet Volt (152,819) continues as the all-time best selling plug-in car in the U.S.
^ Shahan, Zachary (19 January 2020). "Tesla Model 3 = #1 Best Selling Auto In Netherlands & Norway In 2019". Clean Technica. Retrieved 16 May 2020. In Norway and the Netherlands, the Model 3 was the #1 best selling automobile of any kind in any class in 2019.
^ Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2020). "OFV Registreringsstatistikk" [OFV Registration Statistics] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 10 May 2020. To access the sales ranking by model choose "Modell" and the tabs for "2019" and "Desember" - The Tesla Model 3 was the best selling passenger car in Norway in 2019 with 15,683 units registered.
^ ^a ^b Vaughan, Adam (25 December 2017). "Electric and plug-in hybrid cars whiz past 3m mark worldwide". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 January 2018. "The number of fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars on the world’s roads passed the 3 million mark in November 2017."
^ Coren, Michael J. (25 January 2019). "E-nough? Automakers may have completely overestimated how many people want electric cars". Quartz. Retrieved 25 January 2019. The plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2018 A rate of 1/250 translates into 0.40% of all vehicles on the world's roads.
^ ^a ^b ^c Shahan, Zachary (26 August 2021). "Tesla Model 3 Has Passed 1 Million Sales". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
^ ^a ^b Lambert, Fred (10 March 2020). "Tesla produces its 1 millionth electric car". Electrek. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
^ ^a ^b Nissan (3 December 2020). "Nissan marks 10 years of LEAF sales, with over 500,000 sold worldwide". Automotive World. Retrieved 11 December 2020. Nissan today celebrated the 10th anniversary of the Nissan LEAF and the delivery of 500,000 LEAF vehicles since the model was first introduced. More than 148,000 have been sold in the United States
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^ Jeff Cobb (16 September 2015). "One Million Global Plug-In Sales Milestone Reached". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 10 October 2015.
^ Cobb, Jeff (16 January 2017). "The World Just Bought Its Two-Millionth Plug-in Car". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 17 January 2017. An estimated 2,032,000 highway-legal plug-in passenger cars and vans have been sold worldwide at the end of 2016. The top selling markets are China (645,708 new energy cars, including imports), Europe (638,000 EVs), and the United States (570,187 plug-in cars). The top European country markets are Norway (135,276), the Netherlands (113,636), France (108,065), and the UK (91,000). Total Chinese sales of domestically produced new energy vehicles, including buses and truck, totaled 951,447 vehicles. China was the top selling EV market in 2016, and also has the world's largest stock of plug-in cars.
^ Cobb, Jeff (28 September 2016). "China Buys Half-Millionth Passenger Plug-in Car; On Track To Surpass US". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 28 September 2016. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 689,447 units between 2011 and August 2016. Cumulative sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 493,290 units between 2010 and August 2016.
^ Automotive News China (16 January 2018). "Electrified vehicle sales surge 53% in 2017". Automotive News China. Retrieved 22 May 2020. Chinese sales of domestically-built new energy vehicles in 2017 totaled 777,000
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^ Automotive News China (23 October 2018). "China's electrified vehicle fleet tops 2.21 million". Automotive News China. Retrieved 21 October 2018. China's fleet of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids topped 2.21 million by the end of September as sales of electrified vehicles continued to surge in the country. Of the total, EVs accounted for 1.78 million, or nearly 81 percent. The rest were plug-in hybrids, China's Ministry of Public Security said this week. Electrified cargo vehicles—which include trucks, pickups and delivery vans—approached 254,000, representing 11 percent of the electrified vehicle fleet as of last month.
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^ Kane, Mark (4 January 2020). "In 2019, Plug-In Electric Car Sales In Norway Increased By 10%". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 22 May 2020. The Norwegian market share for the plug-in car segment was 55.9% in 2019
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[Global1mi-154] Cobb, Jeff (16 September 2015). "One Million Global Plug-In Sales Milestone Reached". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 16 September 2015. Cumulative global sales totaled about 1,004,000 highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty vehicles by mid-September 2015.

[Cal2014-155] Cobb, Jeff (18 March 2015). "Californians Bought More Plug-in Cars Than China Last Year". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 18 March 2015.

[Calif100K-156] Ohnsman, Alan (9 September 2014). "Californians Propel Plug-In Car Sales With 40% of Market". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 9 September 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2014.

[Calif4Q2014-157] "California Auto Outlook Covering Fourth Quarter 2014: New Light Vehicle Registrations Likely to Exceed 1.9 million units in 2015" (PDF). California New Car Dealers Association (CNCDA). February 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015. Registrations through December 2014 since 2010.

[Calif2Q2015-158] "California New Vehicle Market Continues to Post Impressive Gains" (PDF). California New Car Dealers Association (CNCDA). August 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 10 October 2015. Registrations through June 2015 since 2011. Revised figures for 2014.

[NYT092014-159] Medina, Jennifer (21 September 2014). "Jerry Brown Seeks More Electric Cars in California". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 September 2014.

[SJMN092014-160] Hull, Dana (8 September 2014). "California charges ahead with electric vehicles". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved 15 March 2015.

[EUsalescum2014-161] Schreffler, Roger (23 September 2015). "PSA, Toyota Lead Way as European Cars Get Cleaner". Ward's Auto. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2015. Cumulative plug-in hybrid and all-electric sales in Europe totaled 233,022 units as of December 2014.

[EUsales1H2015-162] Amiot, Maxime (10 September 2015). "Quand l'hybride rechargeable fait de l'ombre à la voiture électrique" [When the plug-in hybrid overshadows the electric car]. Les Échos (in French). France. Retrieved 16 September 2015. A total of 77,259 plug-in electric cars were sold in Europe during the first half of 2015, consisting of 40,558 all-electric cars and 36,701 plug-in hybrids.

[ModelS100K-163] Cobb, Jeff (15 December 2015). "Tesla Model S Crossed 100,000 Sales Milestone This Month". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 17 December 2015. Accounting for global cumulative sales by December 2015, plug-in electric car sales are led by the Nissan Leaf (200,000), followed by the Tesla Model S (100,000). As of November 2015^[update], Mitsubishi i-MiEV family (~50,000), BYD Qin (45,275), BMW i3 (38,581), Renault Zoe (36,040), and the Ford Fusion Energi (26,742). Combines sales of the top 10 PEV models represent almost 50% of cumulative global PEV sales through November 2015)

[Top2015Global-164] Cobb, Jeff (12 January 2016). "Tesla Model S Was World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 13 January 2016.

[Top102014-165] Cobb, Jeff (11 February 2015). "2014's Top-10 Global Best-Selling Plug-in Cars". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 11 February 2015. A total of 31,655 units were sold worldwide in 2014. Global cumulative sales since June 2012 totaled 56,782 Model S cars by the end of 2014.

[Sales2015US-166] Cobb, Jeff (6 January 2016). "December 2015 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 14 March 2016.

[ModelXfirst-167] Millikin, Mike (30 September 2015). "Tesla CEO Musk launches Model X electric SUV: "safest SUV ever"". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 3 October 2015.

[Top10PEVs2016-168] Cobb, Jeff (31 January 2017). "Tesla Model S Is World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car For Second Year in a Row". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 4 February 2017. See also detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs.

[169] Stoll, John (10 February 2016). "Tesla's Musk: Model 3 Orders Surpassed 115,000 Within 24 Hours". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2 April 2016.

[325KModel3-170] Hull, Dana (7 April 2016). "Tesla Says It Received More Than 325,000 Model 3 Reservations". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 7 April 2016.

[SFG02042016-171] Baker, David R. (1 April 2016). "Tesla Model 3 reservations top 232,000". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2 April 2016. Tesla Motors had sold 107,000 Model S cars by the end of 2015

[Tesla125K-172] Young, Angelo (4 April 2016). "Tesla Motors (TSLA) 1Q 2016 Sales: 14,820 Model S, Model X Cars Were Delivered In First Three Months; Model S Sales Jumped 45%". International Business Times. Retrieved 4 April 2016.

[373K-173] Cole, Jay (18 May 2016). "Tesla, Musk Plan $2 Billion Stock Sale To Build Model 3, 373,000 People Reserved". InsideEVs. Retrieved 18 May 2016.

[174] Hull, Dana (18 May 2016). "Tesla to Sell $1.4 Billion in Shares for Expanded Production". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 18 May 2016.

[175] "Hyundai's Ioniq EV sales top 1,000 units". Yonhap News Agency. 12 September 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2016.

[RN350K-176] "Renault-Nissan Alliance hits milestone of 350,000 electric vehicles sold, maintains position as global EV leader" (Press release). Paris/Yokohama: Renault-Nissan Alliance. 13 September 2016. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 13 September 2016. The Alliance has sold its 350,000th electric vehicle since December 2010, when the Nissan LEAF went on sale. The milestone was achieved in August 2016. The Alliance also set an industry record of 100,000 EVs sold in a single year.

[Renault100K-177] "Renault hands over the key to its 100,000th electric vehicle" (Press release). Oslo: Groupe Renault. 9 September 2016. Retrieved 11 September 2016.

[ModelX10K-178] Kane, Mark (14 September 2016). "Tesla Model X Crosses The 10,000 Sold Mark". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 15 September 2016.

[1stBolt-179] Cobb, Jeff. "First Chevy Bolt EVs Delivered Today". HybridCars.com. Archived from the original on 14 December 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.

[ModelS150k-180] Cobb, Jeff (5 December 2016). "Tesla Model S Is Second Plug-in Car To Cross 150,000 Sales Milestone". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 5 December 2016. The Volt/Ampera family of vehicles is the world's all-time third best selling plug-in electric car after the Nissan Leaf (240,000), and the Tesla Model S (over 150,000), with 130,500 vehicles sold globally through November 2016.

[EVs100K-181] Frydenlund, Ståle (13 December 2016). "Norway now has 100,000 electric cars". Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 13 December 2016.

[Leaf3bi-182] "New Nissan Electric Café opens in Paris as the brand celebrates three billion EV kilometres worldwide" (Press release). Paris: Nissan Newsroom Europe. 16 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.

[Leaf250K-183] "Nissan Intelligent Mobility at CES" (Press release). Las Vegas: Nissan USA. 5 January 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.

[LeafBest250K-184] Cobb, Jeff (9 January 2017). "Nissan's Quarter-Millionth Leaf Means It's The Best-Selling Plug-in Car in History". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 10 January 2017. As of December 2016^[update], the Nissan Leaf is the world's best-selling plug-in car in history with more than 250,000 units delivered, followed by the Tesla Model S with over 158,000 sales through November 2016. These are the only plug-in electric cars so far with over 100,000 global sales.

[Top30PEVs2016-185] Sharan, Zachary (4 February 2017). "Tesla Model S & Nissan LEAF Clocked As World's Best-Selling Electric Cars In 2016". EV Volumes. CleanTechnica.com. Retrieved 4 February 2017.

[TopTen2016-186] Cobb, Jeff (17 January 2017). "Top 10 Plug-in Vehicle Adopting Countries of 2016". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 23 January 2017.

[Norsk2016OFV-187] "Bilåret 2016 – status og trender" [Car sales 2016 - status and trends] (PDF). Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (in Norwegian). 10 January 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 4 March 2017.

[OFV012017-188] "Bilsalget i januar" [Car sales in January]. Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (in Norwegian). February 2017. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2017. A total of 5,457 plug-in electric vehicles were registered in Norway in January 207, consisting of: 2,289 new electric cars, 494 used imported all-electric cars, 2,609 new plug-in hybrid cars, 54 new all-electric vans, and 11 used imported all-electric vans. Sales of new plug-in hybrids achieved a market share of 20.0%, all-electric cars 17.5% (excluding FCVs), conventional hybrids 13.9%, diesel cars excluding hybrids 23.9% and gasoline cars excluding hybrids 24.7%.

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[Norway10pt-192] Kane, Mark (7 October 2018). "10% Of Norway's Passenger Vehicles Are Plug Ins". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 7 November 2018.

[193] Bartlett, Jeff S. (28 February 2017). "Which Car Brands Make the Best Vehicles?". Consumer Reports. Retrieved 3 March 2017.

[ModelS200k-194] Cobb, Jeff (22 January 2018). "Tesla Quietly Sold 200,000th Model S Last Year". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 20 October 2018. "Tesla sold its 200,000 Model S in the fourth quarter of 2017, in October or early November, becoming the second plug-in car to cross this sales threshold after the Nissan Leaf (300,000 units by early 2017). As of December 2017^[update], Tesla reported global sales of 212,874 Model S cars."

[Leaf300k-195] "Nissan delivers 300,000th Nissan LEAF" (Press release). Yokohama: Nissan. 8 January 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2018.

[OFV092018-196] Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (October 2018). "Bilsalget i september" [Car sales in September] (in Norwegian). OFV. Archived from the original on 24 October 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2018. The market share of all-electric cars reached 45.3% and plug-in hybrids 14.9%, for a combined market share of the plug-in car segment of 60.2% of new car registrations in September 2018.

[Record60-197] Kane, Mark (2 October 2018). "Plug-ins reach record market share in Norway". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2 November 2018.

[OFV2018-198] Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (2 January 2019). "Bilsalget i 2018" [Car sales in 2018] (in Norwegian). OFV. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.

[Leaf450K-199] "The "E" side of EV: Nissan brings excitement from the road to the track with LEAF Nismo RC unleashed for the first time in Europe" (Press release). Valencia, Spain: Nissan Europe. 20 January 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2020.

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[100kModel3-201] Halvorson, Bengt (8 November 2018). "Finalist for Green Car Reports Best Car To Buy 2019: Tesla Model 3". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 9 November 2018.

[Model3US100K-202] Loveday, Eric (4 December 2018). "Tesla Model 3 Sales Charge Way Past Milestone of 100,000 in U.S." InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 4 December 2018.

[US2018Tesla-203] Mark Kane (3 January 2019). "U.S. Tesla Sales In December 2018 Up By 249%". Inside EVs. Retrieved 9 January 2019.

[US2018sales-204] Steven Loveday (7 January 2019). "December 2018 U.S. EV Sales Recap: Over 360K Secured!". Inside EVs. Retrieved 9 January 2019.

[TopUS2018-205] Kane, Mark (24 January 2019). "US Plug-In Electric Car Sales Charted: December 2018". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 24 January 2019. See Graph: "Top 10 U.S. Plug-in cars (cumulative sales)" and "U.S. Plug-in Car Sales (cumulative)"

[Norsk2018Top-206] Haugneland, Petter (4 January 2019). "Nissan LEAF mest solgte bilmodell i 2018" [Nissan LEAF is the most sold car model in 2018] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 10 January 2019.

[Norsk2018Top10-207] Øystein Fossum (5 January 2019). "Dette var nordmenns favoritt-biler i 2018" [These were Norwegians' favorite cars in 2018] (in Norwegian). Dinside.no. Retrieved 11 January 2019.

[Top20Global2018-208] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Jose, Pontes (31 January 2019). "Global Top 20 - December 2018". EVSales.com. Retrieved 31 January 2019. "Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, with a BEV:PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a market share of 2.1%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2018, followed by BYD."

[Top3US012019-209] Kane, Mark (4 February 2019). "US Plug-In Electric Car Sales Charted: January 2019". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 6 February 2019. See Graph: "Top 10 U.S. Plug-in cars (cumulative sales)" In January 209 the Tesla Model 3 (148,046) overtook the Model S (144,767). The Chevrolet Volt (152,819) continues as the all-time best selling plug-in car in the U.S.

[TopOverallSales-210] Shahan, Zachary (19 January 2020). "Tesla Model 3 = #1 Best Selling Auto In Netherlands & Norway In 2019". Clean Technica. Retrieved 16 May 2020. In Norway and the Netherlands, the Model 3 was the #1 best selling automobile of any kind in any class in 2019.

[OFV2019Modell-211] Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2020). "OFV Registreringsstatistikk" [OFV Registration Statistics] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 10 May 2020. To access the sales ranking by model choose "Modell" and the tabs for "2019" and "Desember" - The Tesla Model 3 was the best selling passenger car in Norway in 2019 with 15,683 units registered.

[Global3mi-212] Vaughan, Adam (25 December 2017). "Electric and plug-in hybrid cars whiz past 3m mark worldwide". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 January 2018. "The number of fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars on the world’s roads passed the 3 million mark in November 2017."

[EVGlobal2018inuse-213] Coren, Michael J. (25 January 2019). "E-nough? Automakers may have completely overestimated how many people want electric cars". Quartz. Retrieved 25 January 2019. The plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2018 A rate of 1/250 translates into 0.40% of all vehicles on the world's roads.

[1miModel3-214] Shahan, Zachary (26 August 2021). "Tesla Model 3 Has Passed 1 Million Sales". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 26 August 2021.

[1million-215] Lambert, Fred (10 March 2020). "Tesla produces its 1 millionth electric car". Electrek. Retrieved 28 March 2020.

[Leaf500K-216] Nissan (3 December 2020). "Nissan marks 10 years of LEAF sales, with over 500,000 sold worldwide". Automotive World. Retrieved 11 December 2020. Nissan today celebrated the 10th anniversary of the Nissan LEAF and the delivery of 500,000 LEAF vehicles since the model was first introduced. More than 148,000 have been sold in the United States

[217] Pyrgidis, C.N. (2016). Railway Transportation Systems: Design, Construction and Operation. Florida: CRC Press. p. 156.

[218] Petrova, Ye.N. (2003). St. Petersburg in Focus: Photographers of the Turn of the Century; in Celebration of the Tercentenary of St. Petersburg. Palace Ed. p. 12. ISBN 9785933321149.

[CarandDriverAug09-219] Quiroga, Tony (August 2009). "Driving the Future". Car and Driver. Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S., Inc. p. 52.

[LAtimes-220] Dean, Paul; Reed, Mack (6 December 1996). "An Electric Start – Media, Billboards, Web Site Herald Launch of the EV1". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 22 May 2020.

[221] Mayne, Eric (4 September 2009). "Drive Tesla Roadster; Forget What You Knew About Acceleration". Wards Auto. Retrieved 21 June 2010.

[222] Cobb, Jeff (10 December 2014). "Retrospective: Four Years of Nissan Leaf and Chevy Volt". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 1 October 2016.

[MSlaunch-223] John Boudreau (22 June 2012). "In a Silicon Valley milestone, Tesla Motors begins delivering Model S electric cars". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved 22 May 2020.

[Norway032014-224] Klippenstein, Matthew (8 April 2014). "One Percent of Norway's Cars Are Already plug-ins". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 31 October 2016.

[225] Jeff Cobb (16 September 2015). "One Million Global Plug-In Sales Milestone Reached". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 10 October 2015.

[Global2mi-226] Cobb, Jeff (16 January 2017). "The World Just Bought Its Two-Millionth Plug-in Car". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 17 January 2017. An estimated 2,032,000 highway-legal plug-in passenger cars and vans have been sold worldwide at the end of 2016. The top selling markets are China (645,708 new energy cars, including imports), Europe (638,000 EVs), and the United States (570,187 plug-in cars). The top European country markets are Norway (135,276), the Netherlands (113,636), France (108,065), and the UK (91,000). Total Chinese sales of domestically produced new energy vehicles, including buses and truck, totaled 951,447 vehicles. China was the top selling EV market in 2016, and also has the world's largest stock of plug-in cars.

[China500Kpax-227] Cobb, Jeff (28 September 2016). "China Buys Half-Millionth Passenger Plug-in Car; On Track To Surpass US". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 28 September 2016. Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 689,447 units between 2011 and August 2016. Cumulative sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 493,290 units between 2010 and August 2016.

[China2017-228] Automotive News China (16 January 2018). "Electrified vehicle sales surge 53% in 2017". Automotive News China. Retrieved 22 May 2020. Chinese sales of domestically-built new energy vehicles in 2017 totaled 777,000

[CNE072017-229] Krok, Andrew (29 July 2017). "By the numbers: Tesla Model 3 vs. Chevrolet Bolt EV". CNET. Retrieved 29 July 2017.

[Sales2017global-230] Jose, Pontes (29 January 2018). "World Top 20 December 2017 (Updated)". EV Sales. Retrieved 17 February 2018. "Global sales totaled 1,224,103 plug-in cars in 2017, with a market share of over 1%."

[5pctEVs2017-231] Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2018). "Tredje største bilsalgsåret i historien" [Third largest car sales year in history] (in Norwegian). OFV. Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2018.

[1millionEU-232] "Electric cars exceed 1m in Europe as sales soar by more than 40%". The Guardian. 26 August 2018. Retrieved 23 October 2018.

[1millionUS-233] Kane, Mark (6 October 2018). "Plug-In Electric Cars Sales in U.S. Surpass 1 Million". InsideEVs. Retrieved 23 October 2018.

[China092018-234] Automotive News China (23 October 2018). "China's electrified vehicle fleet tops 2.21 million". Automotive News China. Retrieved 21 October 2018. China's fleet of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids topped 2.21 million by the end of September as sales of electrified vehicles continued to surge in the country. Of the total, EVs accounted for 1.78 million, or nearly 81 percent. The rest were plug-in hybrids, China's Ministry of Public Security said this week. Electrified cargo vehicles—which include trucks, pickups and delivery vans—approached 254,000, representing 11 percent of the electrified vehicle fleet as of last month.

[Norway10pct-235] Kane, Mark (7 October 2018). "10% Of Norway's Passenger Vehicles Are Plug Ins". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 7 November 2018.

[236] Szczesny, Joseph (11 December 2018). "Sales of Electric Vehicles Growing Steadily in California". The Detroit Bureau. Retrieved 13 December 2018.

[2018Sales2mi-237] Deloitte UK (21 January 2019). "21 million more electric vehicles expected worldwide by 2030". Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (Press release). UK. Retrieved 22 January 2019. 2018 a record year for electric vehicles as two million units sold globally

[238] Routley, Nick (16 March 2019). "Visualizing EV Sales Around the World". Visual Capitalist. Retrieved 2 September 2019.

[Norsk2019-239] Kane, Mark (4 January 2020). "In 2019, Plug-In Electric Car Sales In Norway Increased By 10%". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 22 May 2020. The Norwegian market share for the plug-in car segment was 55.9% in 2019

[Norsk10%EVs-240] Hill, Joshua S. (25 June 2020). "Thanks to electric cars, Norway will reach climate target in 2020". The Driven. Retrieved 3 July 2020. The share of electric cars on Norway's roads reached more than 10% of the total fleet in April

[OFV2020-241] Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (5 January 2021). "Bilsalget i desember og hele 2020" [Car sales in December and throughout 2020] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 7 January 2021.

[Kjøretøybestanden2020-242] Haugneland, Petter (January 2021). "Personbilbestanden i Norge fordelt på drivstoff" [passenger car stock in Norway by fuel] (in Norwegian). Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association). Retrieved 22 January 2021. See graph under "Personbilbestanden i Norge fordelt på drivstoff" - As of 31 December 2020^[update], there were 12.06% all-electric cars and 5.11% are plug-in hybrid cars in use on Norwegian roads. Combined, plug-in electric passenger cars represented 17.17% of all cars in circulation in the country, up from 13.45% in 2019.

[243] "Full Size Electric Vehicles". Archived from the original on 6 April 2005. Retrieved 19 January 2010.

[244] "Electric Car Companies". Electric & Hybrid Cars. US. 2017. Retrieved 13 April 2020.

[GCR032013-245] Voelcker, John (19 March 2013). "All-Electric Sports Car Coming Next Month From Detroit Startup?". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 19 March 2013.

[246] "Electric car for the average Joe not far away". Wheels.ca. 14 September 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2014.

[247] "Global Website | 75 Years of Toyota | Section 8. Integrating IT and Exploring New Energy Sources | Item 2. Responding to the Energy Problem". www.toyota-global.com. Retrieved 6 October 2021.

[REVA4k-248] Sharma, Praveena (17 March 2011). "Govt subsidy may rev up Reva sales". Daily News & Analysis India. Retrieved 31 March 2011.

[FirstEV_2-249] Bill Moore (19 March 2015). "Mitsubishi Firsts". EV World. Archived from the original on 24 March 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2015.

[Leaf470K-250] Kane, Mark (8 May 2020). "Nissan Electric Car Sales May Already Exceed 500,000". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 22 May 2020. More than 470,000 Leaf cars have been sold globally by May 2020.

[Renault2011_16-251] "Ventes Mensuelles" [Monthly Sales] (in French). Groupe Renault. January 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2017. Includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on "(décembre 2016)" to download the file "XLSX - 239 Ko" for CYTD sales in 2016, and open the tab "Sales by Model". Click on "+ Voir plus" (See more) to download the files "Ventes mensuelles du groupe (décembre 2011) (xls, 183 Ko)" "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2012) (xls, 289 Ko)" - Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2013) (xlsx, 227 Ko)" - "XLSX - 220 Ko Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2014)" - "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2015)" to download the file "XLSX - 227 Ko" for 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 sales. Sales figures for 2013 were revised in the 2014 report

[Renault2017_2019-252] Groupe Renault (April 2020). "Ventes Mensuelles - Statistiques commerciales mensuelles du groupe Renault" [Monthly Sales - Monthly sales statistics of the Renault Group] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 17 May 2020. Sales figures includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on the corresponding link to download the file, and open the tab "Sales by Model" to access sales figures for 2017, 2018 and 2019.

[253] "Model S". Tesla. Retrieved 29 June 2020.

[BMWi2020-254] "Six years of BMW i3: Electric vehicle pioneers drive over 200,000 km in their BMW i3" (Press release). Munich: BMW Group. 1 February 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2020. Since its market launch, the BMW i3 has been the most widely sold electric vehicle in the premium compact segment with more than 165,000 units already sold worldwide

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History of the electric vehicle: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 16:38, 12 November 2021

Contents

Early history

Electric model cars

Electric locomotives

First practical electric cars

Golden age

Power as a service and General Vehicle

1920s–1950s

1960s–1990s: Revival of interest

2000s: Modern highway-capable electric cars

2010s

2020s

Electric bicycle

Timeline of milestones

Notable production vehicles

See also

References

External links

Navigation menu

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-{{short description|Aspect of history}}
 {{about|history of all-electric vehicles|the history of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s that use plug-in rechargeable batteries | history of plug-in hybrids}}
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+{{short description|Aspect of history}}
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+[[Electric vehicle]]s first appeared in the mid-19th century. An electric vehicle held the vehicular [[land speed record]] until around 1900. The high cost, low top speed, and short range of [[battery electric vehicle]]s, compared to 20th-century [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles, led to a worldwide decline in their use as private motor vehicles; although electric vehicles have continued to be used in the form of loading and freight equipment and public transport – especially rail vehicles.
-[[Electric vehicle]]s for personal transportation on roads first appeared at the end of the 19th century, exactly at the same time as petrol (gas) and steam powered cars. The steam engine already existed for over a century but had gone through a process of miniaturization from big to small. The petrol engine was invented and improved in the 1870s and also became small enough to be used in road vehicles for personal transport. The electric motor was an even more recent development that was already very compact in itself but needed storage for batteries. The 1870s also saw the development of the bicycle, which led on the one side to technical advances like wire wheels, tube construction and pneumatic tyres. And on the other side to the development of a consumer market for vehicles for personal transportation.
-This is the stage that existed around 1895. A decade - may be 15 years - followed to find out what the dominant source of power for automobiles (motorcars) would be. This battle - with big investors making choices or hedging their bets - is one of the most interesting periods in the history of cars. Chances were changing year-by-year as innovations were presented, tested, implemented or cast away. In Europe this battle was less fierce than in the USA. Around 1915, the battle was decisively won by the gas/petrol engined car.
-An electric vehicle held the vehicular [[land speed record]] until around 1900. The high cost, low top speed, and short range of [[battery electric vehicle]]s, (now referred to as BEVs) compared to 20th-century [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles, led to a worldwide decline in their use as private motor vehicles; although electric vehicles have continued to be used in the form of loading and freight equipment and public transport – especially rail vehicles.
-Apart from '''Battery''' powered electric vehicles (BEVs), technically also '''Hydrogen''' vehicles qualify as electric vehicles, as they usually a hydrogen fuel tank in stead of a battery to powert an electric motor. These can be referred to as HEVs. Experiments with '''Solar''' powered electric vehicles over the years have even led to a new emission-free category of vehicles that can be called SEVs. These are not necessarily plug in vehicles: [[solar vehicles]]. The [[World Solar Challenge]] is an Australian race for solar (electric vehicles held since 1987, attracting participants like [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] and [[General Motors|GM]] but also from technical universities around the world. Finally, when defining an electric vehicle as a vehicle using an electric motor to power the wheels, the [[BMW i3]] REx with so called range extender could be classified as a PEV: a '''petrol''' (or gas) electric vehicle. The 2 cylinder petrol engine is only used as a generator to charge the (normally plug-in charged) batteries of the car.
 At the beginning of the 21st century, interest in electric and other [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s in private motor vehicles has increased due to growing concern over the problems associated with [[Fossil fuel|hydrocarbon-fueled]] vehicles, including damage to the [[air pollution|environment]] caused by their [[exhaust gas|emissions]], and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon-based transportation infrastructure as well as improvements in electric vehicle technology.
-Since 2010, combined sales of all-electric cars and utility vans achieved 1&nbsp;million units delivered globally in September 2016,<ref name=1miBEVs/> 4.8 million electric cars in use at the end of 2019,<ref name=EVOutlook2020>{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2020 |title=Global EV Outlook 2020: Entering the decade of electric drive? |website=[[International Energy Agency]] |date=June 2020 |access-date=2020-06-15}} ''See Statistical annex, pp. 247–252 (See Tables A.1 and A.12). The global stock of plug-in electric passenger vehicles totaled 7.2 million cars at the end of 2019, of which, 47% were on the road in China. The stock of plug-in cars consist of 4.8 million battery electric cars (66.6%) and 2.4 million plug-in hybrids (33.3%). In addition, the stock of light commercial plug-in electric vehicles in use totaled 378 thousand units in 2019, and about half a million electric buses were in circulation, most of which are in China.''</ref> and cumulative sales of light-duty [[plug-in electric car]]s reached the 10&nbsp;million unit milestone by the end of 2020.<ref name=Global2020/> The global ratio between annual sales of battery electric cars and [[plug-in hybrid]]s went from 56:44 in 2012 to 74:26 in 2019, and fell to 69:31 in 2020.<ref name=Global2020/><ref name=EVImckinsey2017/><ref name=Top20Global2019/> {{Asof|2020|08}}, the fully electric [[Tesla Model 3]] is the world's all-time best selling plug-in electric passenger car, with around 645,000 units.<ref name=AllTimeModel2082020>{{cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/447165/see-best-selling-battery-electric-cars/ |title=See The Best Selling Battery Electric Cars Of All-Time Here | first=Mark | last=Kane | publisher=InsideEVs.com| date=2020-10-04 | access-date=2020-10-05}}</ref>
+Since 2010, combined sales of all-electric cars and utility vans achieved 1&nbsp;million units delivered globally in September 2016,<ref name=1miBEVs/> 4.8 million electric cars in use at the end of 2019,<ref name=EVOutlook2020>{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2020 |title=Global EV Outlook 2020: Entering the decade of electric drive? |author=[[International Energy Agency]] (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) |publisher=IEA Publications |date=June 2020 |access-date=2020-06-15}} ''See Statistical annex, pp. 247–252 (See Tables A.1 and A.12). The global stock of plug-in electric passenger vehicles totaled 7.2 million cars at the end of 2019, of which, 47% were on the road in China. The stock of plug-in cars consist of 4.8 million battery electric cars (66.6%) and 2.4 million plug-in hybrids (33.3%). In addition, the stock of light commercial plug-in electric vehicles in use totaled 378 thousand units in 2019, and about half a million electric buses were in circulation, most of which are in China.''</ref> and cumulative sales of light-duty [[plug-in electric car]]s reached the 10&nbsp;million unit milestone by the end of 2020.<ref name=Global2020/> The global ratio between annual sales of battery electric cars and [[plug-in hybrid]]s went from 56:44 in 2012 to 74:26 in 2019, and fell to 69:31 in 2020.<ref name=Global2020/><ref name=EVImckinsey2017/><ref name=Top20Global2019/> {{Asof|2020|08}}, the fully electric [[Tesla Model 3]] is the world's all-time best selling plug-in electric passenger car, with around 645,000 units.<ref name=AllTimeModel2082020>{{cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/447165/see-best-selling-battery-electric-cars/ |title=See The Best Selling Battery Electric Cars Of All-Time Here | first=Mark | last=Kane | publisher=InsideEVs.com| date=2020-10-04 | access-date=2020-10-05}}</ref>
 ==Early history==
 ===Electric model cars===
-The first small scale (model) electric vehicle (as a proof of concept) is attributed to various people.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Guarnieri |first=M. |year=2012 |title=Looking back to electric cars |journal=Proc. HISTELCON 2012 - 3rd Region-8 IEEE HISTory of Electro - Technology CONference: The Origins of Electrotechnologies |pages=1–6 |doi= 10.1109/HISTELCON.2012.6487583 |isbn=978-1-4673-3078-7 |s2cid=37828220 }}</ref> In 1828, the Hungarian priest and physicist [[Ányos Jedlik]] invented an early type of [[electric motor]], and created a small model car powered by his new motor. Between 1832 and 1839, Scottish inventor [[Robert Anderson (inventor)|Robert Anderson]] also invented a crude electric carriage.<ref name=aboutcom/> In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]], the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker from Germany also created a small-scale electric car, powered by non-rechargeable [[primary cell]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rug.nl/university-museum/collections/collection-stories/wagentje-van-stratingh |title=Het wagentje van Stratingh |date=5 June 2019 |website=University of Groningen |language=nl |access-date=27 January 2020 }}</ref>
+The invention of the first model electric vehicle is attributed to various people.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Guarnieri |first=M. |year=2012 |title=Looking back to electric cars |journal=Proc. HISTELCON 2012 - 3rd Region-8 IEEE HISTory of Electro - Technology CONference: The Origins of Electrotechnologies |pages=1–6 |doi= 10.1109/HISTELCON.2012.6487583 |isbn=978-1-4673-3078-7 |s2cid=37828220 }}</ref> In 1828, the Hungarian priest and physicist [[Ányos Jedlik]] invented an early type of [[electric motor]], and created a small model car powered by his new motor. Between 1832 and 1839, Scottish inventor [[Robert Anderson (inventor)|Robert Anderson]] also invented a crude electric carriage.<ref name=aboutcom/> In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]], the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker from Germany also created a small-scale electric car, powered by non-rechargeable [[primary cell]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rug.nl/university-museum/collections/collection-stories/wagentje-van-stratingh |title=Het wagentje van Stratingh |date=5 June 2019 |website=University of Groningen |language=nl |access-date=27 January 2020 }}</ref>
-===Electric (railway) locomotives===
+===Electric locomotives===
+In 1834, [[Vermont]] [[blacksmith]] [[Thomas Davenport (inventor)|Thomas Davenport]] built a similar contraption which operated on a short, circular, electrified track.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.tecsoc.org/pubs/history/2001/jul6.htm |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091015184824/http://www.tecsoc.org/pubs/history/2001/jul6.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-10-15 |title=Today in Technology History: July 6 |publisher=The Center for the Study of Technology and Science |access-date=2009-07-14 }}</ref> The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837, in Scotland by chemist [[Robert Davidson (inventor)|Robert Davidson]] of [[Aberdeen]]. It was powered by [[galvanic cell]]s (batteries). Davidson later built a larger locomotive named ''Galvani'', exhibited at the [[Royal Scottish Society of Arts]] Exhibition in 1841. The {{convert|7|LT|kg|adj=on|order=flip}} vehicle had two [[direct-drive]] [[reluctance motor]]s, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each axle, and simple [[commutator (electric)|commutators]]. It hauled a load of {{convert|6|LT|kg|order=flip}} at {{convert|4|mph|km/h|order=flip}} for a distance of {{convert|1.5|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip}}. It was tested on the [[Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway]] in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use. It was destroyed by railway workers, who saw it as a threat to their security of employment.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Day |first1=Lance |last2=McNeil |first2=Ian |title=Biographical dictionary of the history of technology |year=1966 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-06042-4 |chapter=Davidson, Robert |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415060424 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gordon |first=William |title=Our Home Railways |publisher=Frederick Warne |location=London |year=1910 |volume=2 |page=156 |chapter=The Underground Electric }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Renzo Pocaterra, ''Treni'', De Agostini, 2003</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://features.csmonitor.com/environment/2009/02/10/as-electric-cars-gain-currency-oregon-charges-ahead/ |magazine=Christian Science Monitor |title=As electric cars gain currency, Oregon charges ahead |last=Armstrong Moore |first=Elizabeth |date=10 February 2009 |access-date=2009-04-24 }}</ref>
-{{Main|electric locomotive}}
-In 1834, Vermont blacksmith [[Thomas Davenport (inventor)|Thomas Davenport]] built a small scale model which operated on a short, circular, electrified track.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.tecsoc.org/pubs/history/2001/jul6.htm |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091015184824/http://www.tecsoc.org/pubs/history/2001/jul6.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-10-15 |title=Today in Technology History: July 6 |publisher=The Center for the Study of Technology and Science |access-date=2009-07-14 }}</ref> The first known full size electric locomotive was built in 1837, in Scotland by chemist [[Robert Davidson (inventor)|Robert Davidson]] of [[Aberdeen]]. It was powered by [[galvanic cell]]s (batteries). Davidson later built a larger locomotive named ''Galvani'', exhibited at the [[Royal Scottish Society of Arts]] Exhibition in 1841. The {{convert|7|LT|kg|adj=on|order=flip}} vehicle had two [[direct-drive]] [[reluctance motor]]s, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each axle, and simple [[commutator (electric)|commutators]]. It hauled a load of {{convert|6|LT|kg|order=flip}} at {{convert|4|mph|km/h|order=flip}} for a distance of {{convert|1.5|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip}}. It was tested on the [[Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway]] in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use. It was destroyed by railway workers, who saw it as a threat to their security of employment.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Day |first1=Lance |last2=McNeil |first2=Ian |title=Biographical dictionary of the history of technology |year=1966 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-06042-4 |chapter=Davidson, Robert |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415060424 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gordon |first=William |title=Our Home Railways |publisher=Frederick Warne |location=London |year=1910 |volume=2 |page=156 |chapter=The Underground Electric }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Renzo Pocaterra, ''Treni'', De Agostini, 2003</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://features.csmonitor.com/environment/2009/02/10/as-electric-cars-gain-currency-oregon-charges-ahead/ |magazine=Christian Science Monitor |title=As electric cars gain currency, Oregon charges ahead |last=Armstrong Moore |first=Elizabeth |date=10 February 2009 |access-date=2009-04-24 }}</ref>
 A patent for the use of rails as conductors of electric current was granted in England in 1840, and similar patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in the United States in 1847.<ref>{{cite web |title=Electric Traction |url= http://mikes.railhistory.railfan.net/r066.html|website=mikes.railhistory.railfan.net |date=September 2010 |access-date=2017-11-23 }}</ref>
-The first [[Battery electric multiple unit|battery rail car]] was used in 1887 on the [[Royal Bavarian State Railways]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://railknowledgebank.com/Presto/content/GetDoc.axd?ctID=MTk4MTRjNDUtNWQ0My00OTBmLTllYWUtZWFjM2U2OTE0ZDY3&rID=NzA=&pID=Nzkx&attchmnt=True&uSesDM=False&rIdx=MjUyOA==&rCFU= |title=Battery Rail Vehicles |first=Ben |last=Johnston |date=September 2010 |website=railknowledgebank.com |access-date=6 October 2020}}</ref> Experiments with accumulator railcars, as they were originally called, were conducted from around 1890 in Belgium, France, Germany and Italy. Full implementation of battery trains were undertaken with various degrees of success.
+The first [[Battery electric multiple unit|battery rail car]] was used in 1887 on the [[Royal Bavarian State Railways]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://railknowledgebank.com/Presto/content/GetDoc.axd?ctID=MTk4MTRjNDUtNWQ0My00OTBmLTllYWUtZWFjM2U2OTE0ZDY3&rID=NzA=&pID=Nzkx&attchmnt=True&uSesDM=False&rIdx=MjUyOA==&rCFU= |title=Battery Rail Vehicles |first=Ben |last=Johnston |date=September 2010 |website=railknowledgebank.com |access-date=6 October 2020}}</ref>
+==First practical electric cars==
-The first electric passenger train (without a battery) was presented by [[Werner von Siemens]] at Berlin in 1879. The locomotive was driven by a 2.2 kW, series-wound motor, and the train, consisting of the locomotive and three cars, reached a speed of 13 km/h. During four months, the train carried 90,000 passengers on a 300-meter-long (984 feet) circular track. The electricity (150 V DC) was supplied through a third insulated rail between the tracks. A contact roller was used to collect the electricity.
+[[File:Capture d’écran 2016-10-14 à 21.26.28.png|thumb|[[Gustave Trouvé]]'s tricycle (1881), world's first electric car]]
+[[File:Thomas Parker Electric car.jpg|thumb|Electric car built in England by [[Thomas Parker (inventor)|Thomas Parker]], photo from 1895]]
-=== Electric bicycles ===
+[[File:Flocken 7 1888.jpg|thumb|[[Andreas Flocken|Flocken]] Elektrowagen, 1888 (reconstruction, 2011)]]
-{{main|Electric bicycle}}
+[[File:Columbia Victoria Electric H.C. White 1905.jpg|thumb|Columbia Electric's (1896–99) "Victoria" electric cab on Pennsylvania Ave., Washington D.C., seen from Lafayette Square in 1905, driving in front of the [[White House]].]]
-The first electric bicycles date from the late 1890s. In France, electric tandems built by Perrault were used for pacing road racing cyclists in the Bordeaux-Paris Cycle race of 1897. In the 1930s, an electric bicycle for normal use was developed by Philips and offered to Dutch bicycle manufacturers like Gazelle.
+[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1990-1126-500, Kraftdroschke.jpg|thumb|German electric car, 1904, with the chauffeur on top]]
-==1880-1894: The first practical electric cars hit the road and compete with gasoline and steam==
-[[File:Capture d’écran 2016-10-14 à 21.26.28.png|thumb|1881: [[Gustave Trouvé]]'s tricycle (1881), world's first electric car, Paris, France]]
-[[File:Flocken 7 1888.jpg|thumb| 1888: [[Andreas Flocken|Flocken]] Elektrowagen, Germany, (reconstruction, 2011)]]
-[[File:1894Electrobat.jpg|thumb|1894: Electrobat, built by and driven by Morris & Salom (USA)]]
-[[File:Thomas Parker Electric car.jpg|thumb|1895: Electric car built in England by [[Thomas Parker (inventor)|Thomas Parker]]]]
 Rechargeable batteries that provided a viable means for storing electricity on board a vehicle did not come into being until 1859, with the invention of the [[lead–acid battery]] by French physicist [[Gaston Planté]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/museum/plantebattery.html |title= Planté Battery |publisher= National High Magnetic Field Laboratory |access-date= 14 December 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141214211738/http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/museum/plantebattery.html |archive-date= 14 December 2014 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.travelsmart.gov.au/teachers/teachers6.html|title=Development of the Motor Car and Bicycle|journal=TravelSmart Teacher Resource Kit|publisher=Government of Australia|year=2003|access-date=2009-04-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514111617/http://www.travelsmart.gov.au/teachers/teachers6.html|archive-date=14 May 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Camille Alphonse Faure]], another French scientist, significantly improved the design of the battery in 1881; his improvements greatly increased the capacity of such batteries and led directly to their manufacture on an industrial scale.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.pbs.org/now/shows/223/electric-car-timeline.html|title=Timeline: Life & Death of the Electric Car |date=9 June 2006|access-date=2009-04-24|series=NOW on PBS|publisher=Public Broadcasting Service}}</ref>
+What is likely the first human-carrying electric vehicle with its own power source was tested along a Paris street in April 1881 by French inventor [[Gustave Trouvé]].<ref>{{citation|last=Wakefield|first=Ernest H.|title=History of the Electric Automobile|publisher=Society of Automotive Engineers|year=1994|isbn=1-56091-299-5|pages=2–3}}</ref> In 1880 Trouvé improved the efficiency of a small electric motor developed by Siemens (from a design purchased from {{ill|Johann Kravogl|de}} in 1867) and using the recently developed rechargeable battery, fitted it to an English [[James Starley]] tricycle, so inventing the world's first electric vehicle.<ref>{{citation |first=Ernest Henry |last=Wakefield |title=History of the Electric Automobile |pages=540 |publisher=Society of Automobile Engineers |location=USA |year=1993}}</ref> Although this was successfully tested on 19 April 1881 along the Rue Valois in central [[Paris]], he was unable to patent it.<ref>{{cite book |first=Kevin |last=Desmond |title=A Century of Outboard Racing |publisher=Van de Velde Maritime |year=2000 |isbn=978-0760310472}}</ref> Trouvé swiftly adapted his battery-powered motor to marine propulsion; to make it easy to carry his marine conversion to and from his workshop to the nearby [[River Seine]], Trouvé made it portable and removable from the boat, thus inventing the [[outboard motor]]. On 26 May 1881, the 5-metre Trouvé boat prototype, called Le Téléphone reached a speed of {{convert|1|m/s|km/h mph|abbr=on|order=out}} going upstream and {{convert|2.5|m/s|km/h mph|abbr=on|order=out}} downstream.<ref>Communication made by Trouvé to the Académie des Sciences de Paris, 1881</ref>
-===France===
-What is likely the first human-carrying electric vehicle with its own power source was tested along a Paris street in April 1881 by French inventor '''[[Gustave Trouvé]]'''.<ref>{{citation|last=Wakefield|first=Ernest H.|title=History of the Electric Automobile|publisher=Society of Automotive Engineers|year=1994|isbn=1-56091-299-5|pages=2–3}}</ref> In 1880 Trouvé improved the efficiency of a small electric motor developed by Siemens (from a design purchased from {{ill|Johann Kravogl|de}} in 1867) and using the recently developed rechargeable battery, fitted it to an English [[James Starley]] tricycle, so inventing the world's first electric vehicle.<ref>{{citation |first=Ernest Henry |last=Wakefield |title=History of the Electric Automobile |pages=540 |publisher=Society of Automobile Engineers |location=USA |year=1993}}</ref> Although this was successfully tested on 19 April 1881 along the Rue Valois in central [[Paris]], he was unable to patent it.<ref>{{cite book |first=Kevin |last=Desmond |title=A Century of Outboard Racing |publisher=Van de Velde Maritime |year=2000 |isbn=978-0760310472}}</ref> Trouvé swiftly adapted his battery-powered motor to marine propulsion; to make it easy to carry his marine conversion to and from his workshop to the nearby [[River Seine]], Trouvé made it portable and removable from the boat, thus inventing the [[outboard motor]]. On 26 May 1881, the 5-metre Trouvé boat prototype, called Le Téléphone reached a speed of {{convert|1|m/s|km/h mph|abbr=on|order=out}} going upstream and {{convert|2.5|m/s|km/h mph|abbr=on|order=out}} downstream.<ref>Communication made by Trouvé to the Académie des Sciences de Paris, 1881</ref>
-Also in 1881 Charles Jeantaud in France claims to have built an electric vehicle. No further information is available.
-===United Kingdom===
 English inventor [[Thomas Parker (inventor)|Thomas Parker]], who was responsible for innovations such as electrifying the [[London Underground]], overhead tramways in Liverpool and Birmingham, and the smokeless fuel [[coalite]], built the first production electric car in [[Wolverhampton]] in 1884, although the only documentation is a photograph from 1895.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5212278/Worlds-first-electric-car-built-by-Victorian-inventor-in-1884.html |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |title=World's first electric car built by Victorian inventor in 1884|date=2009-04-24 |access-date=2009-07-14 |location=London}}</ref>
 Parker's long-held interest in the construction of more fuel-efficient vehicles led him to experiment with electric vehicles. He also may have been concerned about the malign effects [[smoke]] and [[pollution]] were having in London.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/hybrid-technology/history-of-electric-cars1.htm |title=What is the history of electric cars? |last=Fuller |first=John |publisher=auto.howstuffworks.com |date=2009-04-09 |access-date=2014-12-14}}</ref> Production of the car was in the hands of the Elwell-Parker Company, established in 1882 for the construction and sale of [[electric tram]]s. The company merged with other rivals in 1888 to form the Electric Construction Corporation; this company had a virtual monopoly on the British electric car market in the 1890s. The company manufactured the first electric '[[dog cart]]' in 1896.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://www.electricvehiclesnews.com/History/historyearlyIII.htm |title=Electric Vehicles History Part III |access-date=2012-12-17}}</ref>
+[[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.<ref name="aboutcom">{{citation|last=Bellis|first=M.|year=2006|title=The History of Electric Vehicles|chapter=The Early Years |publisher=About.com|chapter-url= http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectrica.htm|access-date=6 July 2006}}</ref> German engineer [[Andreas Flocken]] built the first real electric car in 1888.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schrader |first=Halwart |title=Deutsche Autos 1885 - 1920 |date=2002 |publisher=Motorbuch-Verlag |location=Stuttgart |isbn=9783613022119 |language=de |page=182}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=30-Second Great Inventions|last=Boyle|first=David|publisher=Ivy Press|year=2018|isbn=9781782406846|pages=62}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Electric and Hybrid Vehicles|last=Denton|first=Tom|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781317552512|pages=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.np-coburg.de/lokal/coburg/coburg/Elektroauto-in-Coburg-erfunden;art83423,1491254 |title=Elektroauto in Coburg erfunden |trans-title=Electric car invented in Coburg |work=Neue Presse Coburg |location=Germany |language=de |date=2011-01-12 |access-date=2019-09-30}}</ref>
-In the United Kingdom, W.C. Bersey built an electric Omnibus as early as 1888, seven years before building his first electric passenger car.
+Electric trains were also used to transport coal out of [[mining|mines]], as their motors did not use up precious oxygen. Before the pre-eminence of [[internal combustion engines]], electric automobiles also held many speed and distance records.<ref>{{citation|url= http://www.macscouter.com/CubScouts/PowWow07/SCCC_2007/CubScoutThemes/Jan_2008.pdf|date=January 2008|title=Cub Scout Car Show|access-date=2009-04-12}}</ref> Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the {{convert|100|km/h|abbr=on}} speed barrier, by [[Camille Jenatzy]] on 29 April 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle [[Jamais Contente]], which reached a top speed of {{convert|105.88|km/h|abbr=on}}. Also notable was [[Lohner-Porsche|Ferdinand Porsche's]] design and construction of an all-wheel drive electric car, powered by a motor in each hub, which also set several records in the hands of its owner E.W. Hart.
-[[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.<ref name="aboutcom">{{citation|last=Bellis|first=M.|year=2006|title=The History of Electric Vehicles|chapter=The Early Years |publisher=About.com|chapter-url= http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectrica.htm|access-date=6 July 2006}}</ref>{{explanation needed|date=November 2021}}
+The first electric car in the United States was developed in 1890–91 by [[William Morrison (chemist)|William Morrison]] of [[Des Moines]], [[Iowa]]; the vehicle was a six-passenger wagon capable of reaching a speed of {{convert|14|mph|km/h|order=flip}}. It was not until 1895 that consumers began to devote attention to electric vehicles after A.L. Ryker introduced the first electric tricycles to the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|title=1896 Riker Electric Tricycle |url= https://www.thehenryford.org/collections-and-research/digital-collections/artifact/274188/ |publisher=The Henry Ford |access-date=2017-11-23}}</ref>
-===Germany===
-German engineer '''[[Andreas Flocken]]''' built the first real electric car in 1888.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schrader |first=Halwart |title=Deutsche Autos 1885 - 1920 |date=2002 |publisher=Motorbuch-Verlag |location=Stuttgart |isbn=9783613022119 |language=de |page=182}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=30-Second Great Inventions|last=Boyle|first=David|publisher=Ivy Press|year=2018|isbn=9781782406846|pages=62}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Electric and Hybrid Vehicles|last=Denton|first=Tom|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781317552512|pages=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.np-coburg.de/lokal/coburg/coburg/Elektroauto-in-Coburg-erfunden;art83423,1491254 |title=Elektroauto in Coburg erfunden |trans-title=Electric car invented in Coburg |work=Neue Presse Coburg |location=Germany |language=de |date=2011-01-12 |access-date=2019-09-30}}</ref> In 1888, Flocken added a department for electrical engineering to his company Maschinenfabrik A. Flocken in Coburg and from then on experimented with electric vehicles.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}} In the same year, the first Flocken electric car was built. This vehicle was originally a [[chaise]], similar to the [[Daimler Motorized Carriage]] in 1886 by [[Gottlieb Daimler]]. It had 1&nbsp;hp, weighed 400&nbsp;kg and had a top speed of 15kmh.
-===United States===
+==Golden age==
+Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly in the late 1890s and early 1900s.
-The first electric car in the United States was developed in 1890–91 by [[William Morrison (chemist)|'''William Morrison''']] of [[Des Moines]], [[Iowa]]; the vehicle was a six-passenger wagon capable of reaching a speed of {{convert|14|mph|km/h|order=flip}}. His second car was built 1894/1895 by the Shaver Carriage Company and had 24 storage battery cells under the seat. It took part in a parade in Des Moines and that test run was published by Associated Press and Scientific American <ref>Standard Catalog of American Cars, Beverly Rae Kimes, 1996, p.&nbsp;1002.</ref> It resulted in 16.000 letters expressing interest from all over the world. The vehicle was then bought by Harold Sturges for $3.600 who demonstrated it at the World's Columbian Exposition, entered it for the Chicago Times-Herald race of 1895 and displayed it at fairs all over the USA.
+[[Electricity|Electric]] battery-powered taxis became available at the end of the 19th century. In London, [[Walter Bersey]] designed a fleet of such cabs and [[Bersey electric cab|introduced them to the streets of London]] in 1897.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.sciencemuseum.org.uk/the-surprisingly-old-story-of-londons-first-ever-electric-taxi/|title=The Surprisingly Old Story of London's First Ever Electric Taxi|last=Says|first=Alan Brown|website=Science Museum Blog|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref> They were soon nicknamed "Hummingbirds" due to the idiosyncratic humming noise they made.<ref name="London taxi">{{cite web|title=History of the Licensed London Taxi|url=http://www.london-taxi-cabs.com/information/history-of-the-licensed-london-taxi|access-date=4 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429042550/http://www.london-taxi-cabs.com/information/history-of-the-licensed-london-taxi|archive-date=29 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the same year in New York City, the Samuel's Electric Carriage and Wagon Company began running 12 electric [[hansom cab]]s.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11804573|title=Hailing the History of New York's Yellow Cabs}}</ref> The company ran until 1898 with up to 62 cabs operating until it was reformed by its financiers to form the [[Electric Vehicle Company]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Car Companies |url= http://www.earlyelectric.com/carcompanies.html |publisher=Early Electric |access-date=2017-11-23}}</ref>
+[[File:EdisonElectricCar1913.jpg|thumb|right|[[Thomas Edison]] and an electric car in 1913]]
-It was not until 1895 that consumers began to devote attention to electric vehicles after A.L. Riker introduced the first electric tricycles to the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|title=1896 Riker Electric Tricycle |url= https://www.thehenryford.org/collections-and-research/digital-collections/artifact/274188/ |publisher=The Henry Ford |access-date=2017-11-23}}</ref>
-==1895-1920: the Electric Golden Age as taxis, fast sprint cars and urban cars for society women==
-Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly in the late 1890s and early 1900s. In 1895 worldwide sales are estimated at around 1.000 cars. By 1905 sales were at an estimated 50.000. By 1920 they were at 2.500.000.<ref>Angelluci/Belluci; the Automobile, London, 1974, p.114, p.256</ref> In 1895 perhaps 100 of these were electric. By 1905, around 7.500 would have been electric. By 1920, electric sales would have been at an estimate 2.500.
-=== Short range: First use with limited range as taxis in big cities ===
-[[Electricity|Electric]] battery-powered taxis became available at the end of the 19th century. In London, '''[[Walter Bersey]]''' designed a fleet of such cabs and [[Bersey electric cab|introduced them to the streets of London]] in 1897.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.sciencemuseum.org.uk/the-surprisingly-old-story-of-londons-first-ever-electric-taxi/|title=The Surprisingly Old Story of London's First Ever Electric Taxi|last=Says|first=Alan Brown|website=Science Museum Blog|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref> They were soon nicknamed "Hummingbirds" due to the idiosyncratic humming noise they made.<ref name="London taxi">{{cite web|title=History of the Licensed London Taxi|url=http://www.london-taxi-cabs.com/information/history-of-the-licensed-london-taxi|access-date=4 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429042550/http://www.london-taxi-cabs.com/information/history-of-the-licensed-london-taxi|archive-date=29 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the same year in New York City, the Samuel's Electric Carriage and Wagon Company began running 12 electric [[hansom cab]]s.<ref name="npr.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11804573|title=Hailing the History of New York's Yellow Cabs}}</ref> The company ran until 1898 with up to 62 cabs operating until it was reformed by its financiers to form the [[Electric Vehicle Company]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Car Companies |url= http://www.earlyelectric.com/carcompanies.html |publisher=Early Electric |access-date=2017-11-23}}</ref>
-The [[Electrobat]] was the first car built by '''Henry G. Morris & Pedro G. Salom''' of Philadelphia. They applied for a patent on their electric car on January 19, 1894. It had front-wheel-drive by two 1-1,5 HP Lundell electric motors with larger front than rear wheels. The Electrobat II started in the first American auto race (the Chicago Times-Herald race) in 1895, but did not finish (according to the Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, GN Georgano, 1982 and the Standard Catalog of American Cars, Beverly Rae Kimes, 1996, p.&nbsp;1002). The batteries were supplied by the Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia and the car was undoubtedly the most sophisticated electric vehicle in the US at the time.
-Weight was 1.650 pounds and the range was claimed as ‘’20 miles a day and one work week without a charge’’! Morriss & Salom found new partners and started the Electric Carriage and Wagon Company, operating fleets of electric cabs in Philadelphia and New York. Around 1900 the company was bought by investors in the Columbia automobile company.
-In 1895 a '''[[Jeantaud]]''' electric car was entered (but did not finish) the Paris-Bordeaux-Paris race in France. It is unclear whether he finished the race (using battery replacements along the road every 40km, probably not in accordance with the regulations) or had to retire the car because of other reasons.
-[[File:Jeantaud Électrique (1895 Paris-Bordeaux, Jeantaud no. 25).jpg|thumb|1895: Jeantaud Électrique (1895 Paris-Bordeaux-Paris, the first long distance motor race in the World (1.200km) Jeantaud no. 25)]]
-In 1898 a competition was organized between car makers to elect the best taxi for use in Paris. Winner was the Jeantaud company, runner up was [[CITA]]/Jenatzy in the category two-passenger cabs. Krieger was the winner in the category of four-passenger cabs. All were electric, a petrol engined Peugeot taxi-cab also entered the competition but was beaten. '''Louis Antoine Krieger''' (Compagnie Parisienne des Voitures Electriques ‘’systeme Krieger’’) [[Kriéger Company of Electric Vehicles]] built electric cars and taxi-s from 1897 until 1909. Their Milord front wheel drive carriage weighed 2.530&nbsp;lb, had a top speed of 25kmh and achieved a range per charge of 80&nbsp;km. Manufacturing rights were sold all over Europe. In 1902 they also built a smaal car (voiturette in French) called the Electrolette. Of these vehicles 60% of the overall body weight was accounted for by the batteries.<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, Georgano, 1982, p.354</ref> The Electrolette was a two-person vehicle. Next to either front wheel was an electric motor of 2.2&nbsp;kW (3&nbsp;hp) each. The pinion comes out at the side next the wheel and engages with a large gear wheel which is fixed against it. The gear and pinion are inclosed in a tight case. Thus each wheel is turned independently by its own motor. The 360&nbsp;kg (800&nbsp;lb) of Fulmen batteries are contained in a box which is fixed in the vehicle below the carriage body and is arranged so that it may be easily slid out from the rear. Kriéger claimed at least 105&nbsp;km (65&nbsp;mi) on a single charge. The 770&nbsp;kg (1,700&nbsp;lb) 2.2&nbsp;kW (3&nbsp;hp) Electrolette on a level grade could do 34&nbsp;km/h (21&nbsp;mph), or 19 to 24&nbsp;km/h (12 to 15&nbsp;mph) over an average road.
-The Kriéger automobiles were the first to use regenerative electric brakes.
-[[File:Charging station in Paris for electric cars and electric taxicabs, around 1898.jpg|thumb|1898: Charging station in Paris for electric cars and electric taxicabs, around. The second vehicle is a taxi of the ‘Hansom Cab’ type where the driver is seated high behind the passengers. Hautier built this type in 1898]]
-At the same time in the United States the Columbia car company, founded by the famous industrialist '''Colonel Albert Pope''' (well known high wheel bicycle manufacturer and experienced in the field of large scale standardized production methods) was introducing ambitious schemes for taxi services in major American cities. In the year 1900 Columbia (mainly producing electric vehicles) even was the biggest car manufacturer in the world with an estimated 2.000 cars a year (his predecessors were Benz and de Dion Bouton, he was followed by Oldsmobile in 1902 and Ford from 1908 onwards).
-Interestingly, the Electric Vehicle Company - parent company to the Columbia Automobile Company of Hartford, Connecticut - also owned the infamous [[Selden Patent]] that madegasoline engined cars more costly to build because of that patent. Operating the 2.000 electric taxi-cabs proved very expensive however, but exploiting the Selden Patent was much more profitable. (Standard Catalog of American Automobiles, Bevery Rae Kimes, p.&nbsp;357). In 1907 the company went into receivership.
-While most car manufacturers chose one type of propulsion for their vehicles, the French make of '''Gauthier-Wehrle''' has the rather unique distinction of having built in their Paris factory between 1894 and 1900 steam, petrol engines and electric cars. Electric cars were built in 1898 only.<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, Georgano, 1982, p.269</ref>
-Though most manufacturers concentrated on the market for short-distance trips, the company of '''B.G.S'''. In France (Bouquet, Garcin et Schivre from Neuilly) offered a wide range of electric vehicles, the most powerful machine offered in 1900 had a range of no less than 262&nbsp;km! They built - rather typically - their own accumulators. Later models were known as Garcin-Reanults and offered until 1906.<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, Georgano, 1982, p.89</ref>
-In Rome, Italy, E. Cantono built the '''Cantono''' electric  vehicles from 1900 to 1911. The design was similar to the Krieger: converting an existing horse-drwan vehicle with an’avant-train’’ or power-pack front wheels. The batteries were mounted in front of the front axle and te electric motors had independentgear drive to eacht wheel. That enabled a rudimentary form of power braking and steering. The range consisted of Tipo-A (a conversion kit to create a passenger car), Tipo-B (an omnibus conversion kit) and Tipo Turismo, which consisted of a rear chassis with coachwork and the tractor unit in front. After 1905 he firm was known as FRAM (Fabbrica Rotabili Avantreni Motori).<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, Georgano, 1982, p.122</ref>
-[[File:Columbia Victoria Electric H.C. White 1905.jpg|thumb|Columbia Electric's (1896–99) "Victoria" electric cab on Pennsylvania Ave., Washington D.C., seen from Lafayette Square in 1905, driving in front of the [[White House]].]]
-[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1990-1126-500, Kraftdroschke.jpg|thumb|1904: German electric car, 1904, with the chauffeur on top]]
-[[File:Krieger Electric Brougham (4907478393).jpg|thumb|1904: Krieger Electric Brougham as used by the Duke of Westminster: battery pack (4907478393)]]
-[[File:Voitures Electriques 1905.jpg|thumb|1905: Shares of the Compagnie Krieger Voitures Electriques]]
-[[File:ElektrischeVictoria-Wien Siemenscity Eröffnungsfest-01.JPG|thumb|1910: Siemens Elektrische Viktoria-Wien Siemenscity Eröffnungsfest-01 (replica)]]
-=== Fast advertising: Electric sprint cars break the 60mph and 100kmh barriers ===
-Paris taxi-cab manufacturer '''[[Charles Jeantaud]]''' not only instigated a competition between taxi-cab manufacturers (with several days a 60km ride through Paris in 1998), he also instigated another competition: the fastest car on the road. He won the taxi-competition as well as the sprint car competition. This was held in Acheres Park, a long and straight paved road just west of Paris. From a standing start there was a first kilometer and then a ''flying'' kilometer. With a time over the second part of 57 seconds he achieved an average speed of 63kmh. Easily beating the fastest 4 cylinder petrol-engined cars of the era like Mors, Peugeot, Bollee and De Dietrich. Probably because these cars with their gearboxes needed a longer run in. That was December 1898, the driver was count Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat. According to the rules of French chivalry, a challenge was issued by Camille Jenatzy, making a deposit of 500 French Francs at the headquarters of the organising Magazine ‘’La France Automobile’’. Within 4 months, in competition with taxi-manufacturing rival '''[[Camille Jenatzy]]''' (his company was called CITA, his fastest car [[La Jamais Contente]], the speed was raised to 105kmh. This was the start of the Land Speed Record, still challenged along almost identical rules.
-The sprint cars of Jeantaud and Jenatzy used Fulmen type batteries, just like the taxi-cabs they built. However, these batteries were non-rechargeable.
-[[File:Le comte Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat sur Jeantaud Duc électrique Profilée, recordman de vitesse le le 4 mars 1899 à Achères.jpg|thumb|1899: Count [[Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat]] on the Jeantaud ''Duc Profilée'']]
-[[File:Jamais_contente.jpg|thumb|1899: Belgian driver Camille Jenatzy in La Jamais Contente built by C.I.T.A. Of Paris, April 1899, Acheres Park, west of Paris. Land speed record at 105kmh over 1 flying kilometer]]
-Another early manufacturer of electric cars who considered racing as an instrument for testing and advertising his vehicles was the American '''Andrew Lawrence Riker'''. His first sketches of an electric threewheeler are form 1884 and in 1887 de added an electric motor to a Coventry tricycle. His first really practical electric car - a twoseater phaeton - entered the 1896 Narrangansett Park race in Rhode Island and won against gas engined competition. A threewheeler Riker of 1896 (two wheels in front) is in the collection of the Henry Frd Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.
-Riker continued in road racing - while also constructing a number of runabouts, hansom cabs and even electric trucks - with a low-slung torpedo covering a measured mile in allegedly just 63 seconds (92kmh) in Long Island in 1899 and winning the first road race there in 1900 (Springfield-Babylon-Springfield). At the end of that year he sold his company to the Electric Vehicle Company. Riker himself started developing gas engined cars.
-'''Walter C. Baker''', of Cleveland, Ohio had gained experience with electric cars in 1893 helping Morriss & Salom with their first Electrobat. He started his own company in 1899, introducing his first electric car at the National Automobile Show held at Madison Square Garden in New York City in 1900. Thomas Edison was among the first buyers. The cars had two speeds: 6&nbsp;mph (10kmh) and 12&nbsp;mph. (20kmh). At first there were two models, an Imperial runabout ($850) and a Phaeton Stanhope ($1.600). Like Jeantaud and Jenatzy, Baker wanted to prove that electric cars had the possibility of being very quick. He built a submarine like special with 12&nbsp;hp motor by Elwell-Parker and ran it on Staten Island in June, 1902 at a reported (not confirmed) 123kmh (a mile in 47 seconds) only to crash into the crowd killing two spectators. In 1903 Walter Baker tried another publicity stunt with a single seater with normal 3/4&nbsp;hp motor. His car was called the Torpedo Kid and with special Goodrich ‘’cord’’ tyres set several records in Cleveland in September 1903. His company lasted until 1916 and was known for its shaft drive. (Standard Catalog of American Cars, B.R.Kimes, 1996, p.98)
-'''[[Ferdinand Porsche]]''' was also amongst the first engineers to try out the possibilities of electric cars. After working for the Bela Egger company from 1893 he was employed by the Lohner Company of Vienna. At Bela Egger he had already experimented with an in-wheel electric motor (Radnabenmotor) which he was able to develop for Lohner as the ‘’System Lohner-Porsche’’. At first in the two front wheels in 1898 at the age of 23, later (around 1900) on or four wheels. His cars were exposed at the Paris World Exhibition in 1900. Later developments of his cars (of which about 300 were built) concentrated on ‘’mixte’’ combinations of electric and petrol engined vehicles. Today these would be called hybrids. Porsche took part in racing (hillclimbing) in Austria and the UK with his electric and ‘’mixte’’ vehicles.
-=== Silent, simple, clean and smooth: Popular with lady drivers ===
 Electric vehicles had a number of advantages over their early-1900s competitors. They did not have the vibration, smell, and noise associated with gasoline cars. They also did not require gear changes. (While steam-powered cars also had no gear shifting, they suffered from long start-up times of up to 45 minutes on cold mornings.) The cars were also preferred because they did not require a manual effort to start, as did gasoline cars which featured a hand crank to start the engine.
-The high expectations of electric vehicles compared to gasoline or steam engined road vehicles is clear from these quotes from Scientific American in 1899 (reprinted in ‘’The wonderful world of Automobiles 1895-1930, edited byJoseph J. Schroeder Jr., 1971):
-''‘’The wonderful development of electricity within the past few years, for power purposes, and its great economy, adaptability and usefulness in that line, as shown by its universal adaptation for the propulsion of Street railway cars, also clearly demonstrate its superiority as a convenient and easily controlled power for motor vehicles which are becoming so popular. While the well known trolley car takes its power through overhead or underground wires, and conductors from an inexhaustible source of electricity, the motor vehicle is limited to the charge or amount it can carry, in consequence of the fact that it is intended to travel in places and over roads where there is no continuous outside supply of electricity. Hence the means of storing electricity economically in the form of batteries is now one of the problems which is undergoing development’’''
 Electric cars found popularity among well-heeled customers who used them as [[city cars]], where their limited range proved to be even less of a disadvantage.
-A good example of an early electric vehicle with special attention to luxury was the '''Madelvic''', built in Edinburgh between 1898 and 1900. The comapny was formed by the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, William Peck. The car was an electric Brougham (a closed, luxurious coach with large glass windows) coupled to what the French called an ‘’avant-train’’. In this case (instead of two horses)  a smal rear wheel driving the vehicle and two very large front wheels (match the wheels of the Brougham). The battery was stored in the avant train, where the driver would sit just like a coachman. Technically, this vehicle thus was a 5-wheeler.<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia o Motorcars, Georgano, 1982, p.391</ref>
-[[File:TMW 1428 Lohner-Porsche-Elektromobil.jpg|thumb|One of the first designs by Ferdinand Porsche: Lohner-Porsche-Elektromobil with electric motors in both front wheels, 1899, Vienna; Austro-Hungarian Empire]]
-[[File:Studebus.jpg|thumb|Around 1905: Studebaker Electric Omnibus from South Bend, Indiana (USA)]]
 [[File:Detroit Eletric ad 1912.jpg|thumb|1912 [[Detroit Electric]] advertisement]]
+Acceptance of electric cars was initially hampered by a lack of power infrastructure, but by 1912, many homes were wired for electricity, enabling a surge in the popularity of the cars. In the United States by the turn of the century, 40 percent of automobiles were powered by steam, 38 percent by electricity, and 22 percent by gasoline. A total of 33,842 electric cars were registered in the United States, and the U.S. became the country where electric cars had gained the most acceptance.<ref name="Britannica">{{citation|url= https://www.britannica.com/technology/automobile/Early-electric-automobiles |title=Automobile |access-date=18 July 2009}}</ref> Most early electric vehicles were massive, ornate carriages designed for the upper-class customers that made them popular. They featured luxurious interiors and were replete with expensive materials. Sales of electric cars peaked in the early 1910s. There were over 300 listed manufacturers who produced a vehicle in the United States upto 1942.<ref name="Kimes 1996">{{cite book |last=Kimes |first=Beverly |title=Standard Catalog of American Cars 1805–1942 |year=1996 |publisher=Krause Publications |page=1591 |isbn=0-87341-478-0}}</ref>
-[[File:EdisonElectricCar1913.jpg|thumb|right|[[Thomas Edison]] and an electric car in 1913 or 1917]]
+=== Power as a service and General Vehicle{{Anchor|General Vehicle}} ===
-Automotive historian Ralph Stein describes what it was like to drive an electric car of the first decades of the 20th century (in his book ‘’Vintage and Classic Cars, Bantam Books, 1977, p.27):
-''‘’There was no clutch, no gearshift, only a controller with which to change speed. The driver did, however, have to watch the ammeter and voltmeter carefully. The ammeter showed how greedily the motor was using current, the voltmeter showed how much juice was left in the batteries. Above all, the electric did not have te be cranked to start’’.''
-Acceptance of electric cars was initially hampered by a lack of power infrastructure, but by 1912, many homes were wired for electricity, enabling a surge in the popularity of the cars. In the United States by the turn of the century, 40 percent of automobiles were powered by steam, 38 percent by electricity, and 22 percent by gasoline. A total of 33,842 electric cars were registered in the United States, and the U.S. became the country where electric cars had gained the most acceptance.<ref name="Britannica">{{citation|url= https://www.britannica.com/technology/automobile/Early-electric-automobiles |title=Automobile |access-date=18 July 2009}}</ref> Most early electric vehicles were massive, ornate carriages designed for the upper-class customers that made them popular. They featured luxurious interiors and were replete with expensive materials. Sales of electric cars peaked in the early 1910s. There were over 300 listed manufacturers who produced a vehicle in the United States up to 1942.<ref name="Kimes 1996">{{cite book |last=Kimes |first=Beverly |title=Standard Catalog of American Cars 1805–1942 |year=1996 |publisher=Krause Publications |page=1591 |isbn=0-87341-478-0}}</ref>
-Major manufacturers in the U.S.A. included Baker, Rauch&Lang, Columbia, Detroit Electric and Studebaker.
-'''[[Studebaker]]''' - wagon builders long before automobiles appeared - was the only company to last after the second world war, but they only built electric vehicles at the start of their automobile history, from 1902-1912. A total of 1.841 electric Studebakers were built during that period, including commercial vans and trucks with 1.000, 2.500 and 7.500 pounds capacity.<ref>Standard Catalog of American Automobiles, BR Kimes, 1996, p.1410</ref>
-From 1914 tot 1918 the '''Columbian''' was offered for sale by the Columbia Electric Vehicle Company of Detroit, Michigan, at very reasonable prices of between $785 and $985. Their range consisted of an open two-seater, a ‘’coupelette’’ three-seater and a four-seater Brougham, and had wire wheels.
-In Europe, small manufacturers from many countries introduced interesting novelties. The firm '''C.I.E.M.''' From Geneva, Switzerland, offered between 1904 and 1906 petrol-electric cars, where V2 or V4 petrol engines were used to provide power for normal running, but these cars could travel up to 48&nbsp;km (30 miles) on the batteries alone.
-=== Power as a service and the General Vehicle Company{{Anchor|General Vehicle}} ===
 To overcome the limited operating range of electric vehicles, and the lack of recharging infrastructure, an exchangeable battery service was first proposed as early as 1896.<ref name="HistEV" /> The concept was first put into practice by [[Hartford Electric Light Company]] through the GeVeCo battery service and initially available for electric trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle from General Vehicle Company (GVC, a subsidiary of the [[General Electric|General Electric Company]]) without a battery and the electricity was purchased from [[Hartford Electric Light Company|Hartford Electric]] through an exchangeable battery. The owner paid a variable per-mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover the maintenance and storage of the truck. Both vehicles and batteries were modified to facilitate a fast battery exchange. The service was provided between 1910 and 1924 and during that period covered more than 6 million miles. Beginning in 1917 a similar successful service was operated in [[Chicago]] for owners of Milburn Wagon Company cars who also could buy the vehicle without the batteries.<ref name="HistEV">{{cite book |last=Kirsch |first=David A. |title=The Electric Vehicle and the Burden of History |url= https://archive.org/details/electricvehicleb0000kirs |url-access=registration |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey and London |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/electricvehicleb0000kirs/page/153 153–162] |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |isbn=0-8135-2809-7}}</ref>
 In [[New York City]], in the pre-[[World War I]] era, ten electric vehicle companies banded together to form the New York Electric Vehicle Association.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1914-02-18|title=Electric Delivery and Trucking During the Blizzard|pages=6|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/58164944/electric-delivery-and-trucking-during/|access-date=2020-08-27|via=Newspapers.com {{OpenAccess}}}}</ref> The association included manufacturers and [[Car dealership|dealers]], among them [[General Motors|General Motors']] truck division, and the aforementioned General Vehicle division of General Electric, which claimed to have almost 2,000 operating vehicles in the metropolitan region.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=1914-02-18|title=75 General Vehicles Electric Trucks|pages=6|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/58165046/75-general-vehicles-electric-trucks/|access-date=2020-08-27|via=Newspapers.com {{OpenAccess}}}}</ref> When opening their flagship department store, [[Lord & Taylor|Lord and Taylor]] boasted of its electric vehicle fleet – numbering 38 trucks – and the conveyor system to efficiently load and unload goods.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news|date=1914-02-25|title=Lord & Taylor Open Fifth Avenue Store|pages=6|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/58165407/lord-taylor-open-fifth-avenue-store/|access-date=2020-08-27|via=[[Newspapers.com]] {{OpenAccess}}}}</ref>
+==1920s–1950s==
-==1920s–1950s: electric cars out-performed by vastly improved gasoline engined cars, and almost forgotten==
+[[File:Tama-denki-jidosya01.jpg|thumb|Electric vehicle TAMA, produced by [[Tachikawa Aircraft Company]] in 1947. [[Mechanical Engineering Heritage (Japan)]] No. 40]]
+[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-21519-0005, Neue Fahrzeuge der Deutschen Post.jpg|thumb|[[East German]] electric vans of the [[Deutsche Post of the GDR|Deutsche Post]] in 1953]]
-[[File:1920DetroitElectricAd.jpg|thumb|1920:Detroit Electric Ad. Notice that the hood/bonnet has a more gas/petrol car appearance than before.]]
-[[File:Peugeot Voiture Légère de Ville at Sochaux Museum.JPG|thumb|1942 Peugeot VLV at [[Musée de l'Aventure Peugeot]]]]
-[[File:Tama-denki-jidosya01.jpg|thumb|1947: Electric vehicle TAMA, produced by [[Tachikawa Aircraft Company]] in Japan. [[Mechanical Engineering Heritage (Japan)]] No. 40]]
-[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-21519-0005, Neue Fahrzeuge der Deutschen Post.jpg|thumb| 1953: [[East German]] electric vans of the [[Deutsche Post of the GDR|Deutsche Post]] ]]
 After enjoying success at the beginning of the 20th century, the electric car began to lose its position in the automobile market. A number of developments contributed to this situation. By the 1920s an improved road infrastructure improved travel times, creating a need for vehicles with a greater range than that offered by electric cars. Worldwide discoveries of large [[petroleum]] reserves led to the wide availability of affordable [[gasoline]], making gas-powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric cars were limited to urban use by their slow speed (no more than 24–32&nbsp;km/h or 15–20&nbsp;mph<ref name= Britannica/>) and low range (50–65&nbsp;km or 30–40 miles<ref name=Britannica/>), and gasoline cars were now able to travel farther and faster than equivalent electrics.
-=== Stubbornness in Motown ===
-The most persistent producer of electric vehicles in the world was the company of '''William C. Anderson''' of Detroit, building the Detroit Electric. Total production between 1906 and 1930 was around 30.000 vehicles, with the most successful years between 1913 an 1916 (about 4.000 cars a year). This total production was only surpassed in 2012 or thereabout with the Mitsubishi i-MIEV. After 1915 their models were more or less the same, although they tried to make their models look like gasoline cars. Around 1912 they not only used the common lead batteries, but also the [[Thomas Alva Edison]] designed nickel-iron (NiFe) battery.
-In Detroit (Motown) of course the most famous gasoline-engined car builder was [[Henry Ford]]. He bought his wife, Clara, a new car: a Detroit Electric.
-Another manufacturer in the USA was the [['''Milburn Wagon Company''']] Of Toledo, Ohio. Wagon builders since 1848 (just like Studebaker). They were built from 1914 to 1922 with attractive closed car bodies. Interestingly, Milburn electric cars were used by the Secret Servicemen of president Woodrow Wilson. Over 7.000 were made<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, Georgano, 1982, p.425</ref>
-=== Closing the comfort gap: gasoline cars become smoother and more simple as well ===
 Gasoline cars also overcame much of their negatives compared to electrics, in several areas. Whereas ICE cars originally had to be hand-cranked to start – a difficult and sometimes dangerous activity – the invention of the [[electric starter]] by [[Charles Kettering]] in 1912<ref name="R1">{{cite web|title=The Voltec System - Energy Storage and Electric Propulsion|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262004450|last1=Matthe|first1=Roland|last2=Eberle|first2=Ulrich|date=2014-01-01|access-date=2014-05-04}}</ref> eliminated the need of a hand starting crank. Further, while gasoline engines are inherently noisier than electric motors, the invention of the [[muffler]] by [[Milton O. Reeves]] and Marshall T. Reeves in 1897 significantly reduced the noise to tolerable levels. Finally, [[Assembly line|the initiation of mass production]] of gas-powered vehicles by [[Henry Ford]] brought their price down.<ref>{{cite web |last=McMahon |first=D. |title=Some EV History / History of Electric Cars and Other Vehicles |publisher=Econogics |url= http://www.econogics.com/ev/evhistry.htm |date=13 November 2009 |access-date=13 July 2013 }}</ref> By contrast, the price of similar electric vehicles continued to rise; by 1912, an electric car sold for almost double the price of a gasoline car.<ref name="aboutcom" />
-This is, however, not a realistic comparison because electric cars were offered in the more exclusive parts of the automobile market, competing with the ‘’Three P’s’’ of the era (Packard, Pierce and Peerless) and Cadillac. In that part, price competition was less important. Competition with more comfort (electric (!) self starters, electric (!) light and electric (!) heating in enclosed sedan bodies of gasoline engined cars) was more important.
-[[File:Kilowatt.jpg|thumb|1961: The [[Henney Kilowatt]], a 1961 production electric car conversion of the French Renault Dauphine]]
+[[File:Kilowatt.jpg|thumb|The [[Henney Kilowatt]], a 1961 production electric car]]
+Most electric car makers stopped production at some point in the 1910s. Electric vehicles became popular for certain applications where their limited range did not pose major problems. [[Forklift truck]]s were electrically powered when they were introduced by Yale in 1923.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.com/ygl_history.asp?language=English |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060202065804/http://www.yale.com/ygl_history.asp?language=ENGLISH |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-02-02 |title=1984 |work=Yale History |access-date=2009-07-09 }}</ref> In Europe, especially the United Kingdom, [[milk float]]s were powered by electricity, and for most of the 20th century the majority of the world's battery electric road vehicles were British milk floats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cgl.uwaterloo.ca/~racowan/escape.html |title=Escaping Lock-in: the Case of the Electric Vehicle |publisher=Cgl.uwaterloo.ca |access-date=2010-11-27 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202136/http://www.cgl.uwaterloo.ca/~racowan/escape.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Electric [[golf cart]]s were produced by Lektro as early as 1954.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.lektro.com/about_history.asp |title=Lektro has been making electric vehicles since 1945 |publisher=Lektro |access-date=13 July 2013 }} Chapter: Lektro history.</ref> By the 1920s, the early heyday of electric cars had passed, and a decade later, the electric automobile industry had effectively disappeared. Michael Brian examines the social and technological reasons for the failure of electric cars in his book ''Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America |last=Schiffer |first=Michael Brian |publisher=Smithsonian |isbn=978-1-58834-076-4 |date=17 March 2003 }}</ref>
-=== Business and leasure: limited range electric vans and golf carts===
-Most electric car makers stopped production at some point in the 1910s. Electric vehicles became popular for certain applications where their limited range did not pose major problems. [[Forklift truck]]s were electrically powered when they were introduced by Yale in 1923.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.com/ygl_history.asp?language=English |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060202065804/http://www.yale.com/ygl_history.asp?language=ENGLISH |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-02-02 |title=1984 |work=Yale History |access-date=2009-07-09 }}</ref> In Europe, especially the United Kingdom, [[milk float]]s were powered by electricity, and for most of the 20th century the majority of the world's battery electric road vehicles were British milk floats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cgl.uwaterloo.ca/~racowan/escape.html |title=Escaping Lock-in: the Case of the Electric Vehicle |publisher=Cgl.uwaterloo.ca |access-date=2010-11-27 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202136/http://www.cgl.uwaterloo.ca/~racowan/escape.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
-Between 1936 and 1940, The Leicester (UK) firm of '''Cleco''' (already specialized in light battery-electric vans) made a small number of electric saloon cars on a wheelbase of 199&nbsp;cm.<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia of Motor Cars, Georgano, 1982, p.145</ref>
-Electric [[golf cart]]s were produced by '''Lektro''' as early as 1954.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.lektro.com/about_history.asp |title=Lektro has been making electric vehicles since 1945 |publisher=Lektro |access-date=13 July 2013 }} Chapter: Lektro history.</ref> By the 1920s, the early heyday of electric cars had passed, and a decade later, the electric automobile industry had effectively disappeared. Michael Brian examines the social and technological reasons for the failure of electric cars in his book ''Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America |last=Schiffer |first=Michael Brian |publisher=Smithsonian |isbn=978-1-58834-076-4 |date=17 March 2003 }}</ref>
+Years passed without a major revival in the use of electric cars. Fuel-starved European countries fighting in World War II experimented with electric cars such as the British [[milk float]]s and the French [[Bréguet Aviation]] car, but overall, while [[Internal combustion engine|ICE]] development progressed at a brisk pace, electric vehicle technology stagnated. In the late 1950s, Henney Coachworks and the National Union Electric Company, makers of Exide batteries, formed a joint venture to produce a new electric car, the [[Henney Kilowatt]], based on the French [[Renault Dauphine]]. The car was produced in 36-[[volt]] and 72-volt configurations; the 72-volt models had a top speed approaching {{convert|96|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and could travel for nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the Kilowatt's improved performance with respect to previous electric cars, consumers found it{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} too expensive compared to equivalent gasoline cars of the time, and production ended in 1961.
-In the Netherlands, [[Spijkstaal]] of Spijkenisse near Rotterdam started in 1955 building electric delivery vans for door-to-door service. From 1970 onwards they built much bigger SRV vans in which customers could do their mini-market shopping inside.
+==1960s{{ndash}}1990s: Revival of interest==
-[[File:Spijkstaal 1969.jpg|thumb|1969: Spijkstaal, the Netherlands]]
-[[File:SRV-wagen.jpg|thumb|1970: Spijkstaal SRV-wagen door-to-door service super market in the Netherlands. One of 2.000 in operation in 1970]]
-=== Fuel starvation causes renewed interest ===
-Years passed without a major revival in the use of electric cars. Fuel-starved European countries fighting in World War II experimented with electric cars such as the British [[milk float]]s and the French [[Bréguet Aviation]] car, the small French electric twoseater built by Emile '''Chapeaux''' in 1940–41 in Lyon (64 kmh, only 4 were built because of shortage of materials)<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, Georgano, 1982, p.132</ref> and the '''Peugeot''' VLV (1943) or the '''C.G.E'''. Designed bij Charles Gregoire (1941-1946), the '''C.M.V.''' of Valencia (Spain) small electric car (1944–46) was shown in the government sponsored (in order to save petrol) Electric Motor Show in Madrid in 1946<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, Georgano, 1982, p.149</ref> and the '''TAMA''' electric (Japan, 1947). But overall, while [[Internal combustion engine|ICE]] development progressed at a brisk pace, electric vehicle technology stagnated. In the late 1950s, Henney Coachworks and the National Union Electric Company, makers of Exide batteries, formed a joint venture to produce a new electric car, the [[Henney Kilowatt]], based on the French [[Renault Dauphine]]. The car was produced in 36-[[volt]] and 72-volt configurations; the 72-volt models had a top speed approaching {{convert|96|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and could travel for nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the Kilowatt's improved performance with respect to previous electric cars, consumers found it{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} too expensive compared to equivalent gasoline cars of the time, and production ended in 1961.
-In San Diego, the Stinson Aircraft Tool and Engineerin Corp presented the '''Charles Town-About''', named after its sponsor Dr. Charles Graves. Prototypes in 1958 and 1959 resembled the Volkswagen Karmann Ghia. With each car, the experimental lay-out varied. Several of their prototypes had fibreglass bodies, with two batteries powering the motors next to the rear wheels.<ref>The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, Georgano, 1982, p.133</ref>
-==1960s{{ndash}}1980s: Revival of interest, environmental considerations, but mostly prototypes for urban use==
 In 1959, [[American Motors Corporation]] (AMC) and Sonotone Corporation announced a joint research effort to consider producing an electric car powered by a "self-charging" battery.<ref name="wards2000">{{cite journal |url= http://wardsautoworld.com/ar/auto_rearview_mirror_13/index.html |title=Rearview Mirror |journal=Ward's AutoWorld |date=2000-04-01 |access-date=2013-07-13 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110728081557/http://wardsautoworld.com/ar/auto_rearview_mirror_13/index.html |archive-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> AMC had a reputation for innovation in economical cars while Sonotone had technology for making sintered plate [[Nickel–cadmium battery|nickel-cadmium batteries]] that could be recharged rapidly and weighed less than traditional lead-acid versions.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.roger-russell.com/sonopg/sononst.htm |last=Russell|first=Roger |title=Sonotone History: Tubes, Hi-Fi Electronics, Tape heads and Nicad Batteries|publisher=Sonotone Corporation History |access-date=2013-07-13 }}</ref> That same year, Nu-Way Industries showed an experimental electric car with a one-piece plastic body that was to begin production in early 1960.<ref name="wards2000"/>
+In the mid 1960s a few battery-electric [[concept cars]] appeared, such as the [[Scottish Aviation Scamp]] (1965),<ref name="design_19660701">{{cite journal |last=Carr |first=Richard |date=1 July 1966 |title=In search of the town car |journal=Design |issue=211 |pages=29–37 |publisher=Council of Industrial Design }}</ref> and an electric version of General Motors gasoline car, the [[Chevrolet Corvair|Electrovair]] (1966).<ref>{{cite news| url= https://money.cnn.com/galleries/2008/autos/0809/gallery.gm_electric_cars/3.html | work=CNN | title=GM's long road back to electric cars | date=2009-04-07 |access-date=2013-07-13 }}</ref> None of them entered production. The 1973 [[Enfield 8000]] did make it into small-scale production, 112 were eventually produced.<ref name="Hereward">{{cite book |title=The Electric Car |first=Michael Hereward |last=Westbrook |publisher=Institute of Engineering & Technology |year=2001 |isbn=0-85296-013-1 }}</ref> In 1967, AMC partnered with Gulton Industries to develop a new battery based on [[Lithium battery|lithium]] and a speed controller designed by Victor Wouk.<ref name="Wouk">{{cite journal|url= http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/EandS/articles/LXVII3/Wouk%20Feature.pdf |last= Goodstein|first=Judith|author-link=Judith R. Goodstein|year=2004|title=Godfather of the Hybrid|journal=Engineering & Science| publisher=California Institute of Technology |volume=LXVII |issue=3|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110107062247/http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/EandS/articles/LXVII3/Wouk%20Feature.pdf |archive-date=2011-01-07 |access-date=2013-07-13 }}</ref> A nickel-cadmium battery supplied power to an all-electric 1969 [[Rambler American]] station wagon.<ref name=Wouk/> Other "plug-in" experimental AMC vehicles developed with Gulton included the [[Amitron]] (1967) and the similar [[AMC Electron|Electron]] (1977).
-The [[Ford Comuta]] was an experimental electric vehicle designed by '''Ford (UK)''' in the 1960s. The vehicle was powered by four 12-volt 85-Ah lead batteries. When it was fully charged, the car had a range of 60 kilometres (37&nbsp;mi) at a speed of 40 kilometres per hour (25&nbsp;mph), and was capable of a maximum speed of 60 kilometres per hour (37&nbsp;mph). Only a handful Comutas were produced, as the vehicle was an experiment. It was built for two (adult) passengers.
-[[File:HYDE PARK.JPG|thumb|1973: Enfield 8000 (UK). 112 were produced. Most were sold to the British Electricity Council]]
-[[File:1972 Crompton Leyland Electricar Prototype.jpg|thumb|1972 Crompton Leyland Electricar Prototype]]
-In the mid 1960s a few battery-electric [[concept cars]] appeared, such as the [[Scottish Aviation Scamp]] (1965),<ref name="design_19660701">{{cite journal |last=Carr |first=Richard |date=1 July 1966 |title=In search of the town car |journal=Design |issue=211 |pages=29–37 |publisher=Council of Industrial Design }}</ref> and an electric version of General Motors gasoline car, the [[Chevrolet Corvair|Electrovair]] (1966).<ref>{{cite news| url= https://money.cnn.com/galleries/2008/autos/0809/gallery.gm_electric_cars/3.html | work=CNN | title=GM's long road back to electric cars | date=2009-04-07 |access-date=2013-07-13 }}</ref> None of them entered production. The 1973 [[Enfield 8000]] built by '''Enfield Automotive''' of London did make it to small-scale production, 112 were eventually produced. It had sliding doors and an 8&nbsp;hp motor. The British Electricity Council bought 61 of them, but for sales to the general public the 1975 consumer price of GBP 2.808 was too high.
-<ref name="Hereward">{{cite book |title=The Electric Car |first=Michael Hereward |last=Westbrook |publisher=Institute of Engineering & Technology |year=2001 |isbn=0-85296-013-1 }}</ref> In 1967, AMC partnered with Gulton Industries to develop a new battery based on [[Lithium battery|lithium]] and a speed controller designed by Victor Wouk.<ref name="Wouk">{{cite journal|url= http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/EandS/articles/LXVII3/Wouk%20Feature.pdf |last= Goodstein|first=Judith|author-link=Judith R. Goodstein|year=2004|title=Godfather of the Hybrid|journal=Engineering & Science| publisher=California Institute of Technology |volume=LXVII |issue=3|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110107062247/http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/EandS/articles/LXVII3/Wouk%20Feature.pdf |archive-date=2011-01-07 |access-date=2013-07-13 }}</ref> A nickel-cadmium battery supplied power to an all-electric 1969 [[Rambler American]] station wagon.<ref name=Wouk/> Other "plug-in" experimental AMC vehicles developed with Gulton included the [[Amitron]] (1967) and the similar [[AMC Electron|Electron]] (1977).
 [[File:Apollo15LunarRover.jpg|thumb|Three [[Lunar Roving Vehicle]]s are currently parked on the Moon]]
-=== Exploring the moon! ===
 On 31 July 1971, an electric car received the unique distinction of becoming the first manned vehicle to drive on the [[Moon]]; that car was the [[Lunar Roving Vehicle]], which was first deployed during the [[Apollo 15]] mission. The "Moon buggy" was developed by [[Boeing]] and GM subsidiary [[Delco Electronics]] (co-founded by Kettering)<ref name="R1"/> featured a DC drive motor in each wheel, and a pair of 36-volt silver-zinc potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries.
+After years outside the limelight, the energy crises of the 1970s and 1980s brought about renewed interest in the perceived independence electric cars had from the fluctuations of the hydrocarbon energy market. However, vehicles such as the intensely-marketed Sinclair C5 failed, possibly because "global warming hadn't been invented then".<ref name=Wallpaper09>{{cite journal |title=Who stopped the future? |last1=Randerson |first1=James |journal=Wallpaper |date=July 2008 |issue=112 |pages=104 |publisher=IPC Media |issn=1364-4475 |oclc=948263254 |quote='The big problem was that it had no market,' says Woordward. 'Globa warming hadn't been invented then'}}</ref>  General Motors created a concept car of another of their gasoline cars, the [[Chevrolet Chevette|Electrovette]] (1976). At the 1990 [[Los Angeles Auto Show]], [[General Motors]] President [[Roger Smith (executive)|Roger Smith]] unveiled the [[GM Impact]] electric [[concept car]], along with the announcement that GM would build electric cars for sale to the public.
-=== Saving Earth? ===
+From the 1960s to the 1990s, a number of companies made battery electric vehicles converted from existing manufactured models, often using [[Glider (automobiles)|gliders]]. None were sold in large numbers, with sales hampered by high cost and a limited range. Most of these vehicles were sold to government agencies and electric utility companies. The passage of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1976 in the US provided government incentives for development of electric vehicles in the US.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.businessinsider.com/electric-car-history-2017-5 |title=How the electric car became the future of transportation |first=Cadie |last=Thompson |work=Business Insider |location=US |date=2 July 2017 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Electric Fuel Propulsion Corporation (now [[Apollo Energy Systems]]) produced the [[Electrosport]] (a converted [[AMC Hornet]]), the Mars I (a converted [[Renault Dauphine]]), and the Mars II (a converted [[Renault 8 and 10|Renault R-10]]). [[Jet Industries]] sold the Electra-Van 600 (a converted [[Subaru Sambar]] 600), the Electra-Van 750 (converted [[Mazda B series|Mazda B2000]]/Ford Courier pickup trucks), the Electrica (converted [[Ford Escort (North America)|Ford Escort]]/Mercury Lynx cars) and the Electrica 007 (converted [[Dodge Omni 024]]/Plymouth Horizon TC3 cars). U.S. Electricar Corp., based in Massachusetts, sold the Lectric Leopard, a converted [[Renault 5]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.autoblog.com/2008/11/05/ebay-find-of-the-day-1980-lectric-leopard-w-video/ |title=eBay find of the day: 1980 Lectric Leopard |first=Sam |last=Abuelsamid |work=autoblog |location=US |date=5 November 2008 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Electric Vehicle Associates sold the Current Fare (a converted [[Ford Fairmont]]) and the Change of Pace (a converted [[AMC Pacer]]).<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1089781_rare-1980-ford-fairmont-eva-electric-conversion-for-sale |title=Rare 1980 Ford Fairmont EVA Electric Conversion For Sale |first=Stephen |last=Edelstein |work=Green Car Reports |location=US |date=21 January 2014 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> U.S. Electricar, Inc., based in California, sold a converted [[Geo Prizm]].<ref>{{cite document |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/236257-dynamometer-testing-electricar-geo-prizm-conversion-electric-vehicle |title=Dynamometer testing of the U.S. Electricar Geo Prizm conversion electric vehicle |first1=R.A. |last1=Richardson |first2=E.J. |last2=Yarger |first3=G.H. |last3=Cole |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information |location=US |doi=10.2172/236257 |date=1 April 1996 |osti=236257 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Solectria Corporation (now [[Azure Dynamics]]) sold the [[Solectria Force]] (a converted [[Geo Metro]]) and the E10 (a converted [[Chevrolet S-10]]). Later, General Motors would also produce an electric S-10, the [[Chevrolet S-10 EV]], based on the [[General Motors EV1]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.automobilemag.com/news/1994-solectria-e10-and-1997-chevrolet-s10-electric-pickups-134812/ |title=1994 Solectria E10 and 1997 Chevrolet S10 Electric Pickups |first=Evan |last=McCausland |work=Automobile magazine |location=US |date=13 August 2008 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref>
-After years outside the limelight, the energy crises of the 1970s and 1980s brought about renewed interest in the perceived independence electric cars had from the fluctuations of the hydrocarbon energy market. However, vehicles such as the intensely-marketed Sinclair C5 failed, possibly because "global warming hadn't been invented then".<ref name=Wallpaper09>{{cite journal |title=Who stopped the future? |last1=Randerson |first1=James |journal=Wallpaper |date=July 2008 |issue=112 |pages=104 |publisher=IPC Media |issn=1364-4475 |oclc=948263254 |quote='The big problem was that it had no market,' says Woordward. 'Globa warming hadn't been invented then'}}</ref>  General Motors created a concept car of another of their gasoline cars, the [[Chevrolet Chevette|Electrovette]] (1976). At the 1990 [[Los Angeles Auto Show]], [['''General Motors''']] President [[Roger Smith (executive)|Roger Smith]] unveiled the [[GM Impact]] electric [[concept car]], along with the announcement that GM would build electric cars for sale to the public.
+[[File:1997-1999 Honda EV Plus 02.jpg|thumb|The [[Honda EV Plus]], one of the cars introduced as a result of the CARB ZEV mandate]]
-=== Small scale conversion of existing petrol engined cars to electric cars ===
-From the 1960s to the 1990s, a number of companies made battery electric vehicles converted from existing manufactured models, often using [[Glider (automobiles)|gliders]]. None were sold in large numbers, with sales hampered by high cost and a limited range. Most of these vehicles were sold to government agencies and electric utility companies. The passage of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1976 in the US provided government incentives for development of electric vehicles in the US.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.businessinsider.com/electric-car-history-2017-5 |title=How the electric car became the future of transportation |first=Cadie |last=Thompson |work=Business Insider |location=US |date=2 July 2017 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Electric Fuel Propulsion Corporation (now [[Apollo Energy Systems]]) produced the [[Electrosport]] (a converted [[AMC Hornet]]), the Mars I (a converted [[Renault Dauphine]]), and the Mars II (a converted [[Renault 8 and 10|Renault R-10]]). [[Jet Industries]] sold the Electra-Van 600 (a converted [[Subaru Sambar]] 600), the Electra-Van 750 (converted [[Mazda B series|Mazda B2000]]/Ford Courier pickup trucks), the Electrica (converted [[Ford Escort (North America)|Ford Escort]]/Mercury Lynx cars) and the Electrica 007 (converted [[Dodge Omni 024]]/Plymouth Horizon TC3 cars). This conversion  included a 600kg Lead-acid batterypack, a range of 80km and a top speed of 115kmh. Production in the 1980s of '''Jet Industries''' was 60 car conversions each month. <ref>Alle Auto der 80er Jahre, Roger Gloor, Motor Buch Verlag, 2012, p.575</ref>U.S. Electricar Corp., based in Massachusetts, sold the Lectric Leopard, a converted [[Renault 5]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.autoblog.com/2008/11/05/ebay-find-of-the-day-1980-lectric-leopard-w-video/ |title=eBay find of the day: 1980 Lectric Leopard |first=Sam |last=Abuelsamid |work=autoblog |location=US |date=5 November 2008 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Electric Vehicle Associates sold the Current Fare (a converted [[Ford Fairmont]]) and the Change of Pace (a converted [[AMC Pacer]]).<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1089781_rare-1980-ford-fairmont-eva-electric-conversion-for-sale |title=Rare 1980 Ford Fairmont EVA Electric Conversion For Sale |first=Stephen |last=Edelstein |work=Green Car Reports |location=US |date=21 January 2014 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> U.S. Electricar, Inc., based in California, sold a converted [[Geo Prizm]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/236257-dynamometer-testing-electricar-geo-prizm-conversion-electric-vehicle |title=Dynamometer testing of the U.S. Electricar Geo Prizm conversion electric vehicle |first1=R.A. |last1=Richardson |first2=E.J. |last2=Yarger |first3=G.H. |last3=Cole |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information |location=US |doi=10.2172/236257 |date=1 April 1996 |osti=236257 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Solectria Corporation (now [[Azure Dynamics]]) sold the [[Solectria Force]] (a converted [[Geo Metro]]) and the E10 (a converted [[Chevrolet S-10]]).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.automobilemag.com/news/1994-solectria-e10-and-1997-chevrolet-s10-electric-pickups-134812/ |title=1994 Solectria E10 and 1997 Chevrolet S10 Electric Pickups |first=Evan |last=McCausland |work=Automobile magazine |location=US |date=13 August 2008 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref>
-In his overview over the 1980s, Swiss automotive historian Roger Gloor summarized the technical development of electric vehicles: In the USA GM proposed a small electric car in 1986; in Germany the ‘’Gesellschaft fuer elektrischen Stassenverkehr’’ conducted intensive research and several manufacturers built prototypes. Amongst them Daihatsu from Japan, building vans in small series production. Firms like Zagati from Italy and Carville from Switzerland offered small series electric passenger cars. BBC developed a high energy Natrium-sulphur battery.<ref>Alle Autos der 80er Jahre, Roger Gloor, Motor Buch Verlag, 2012, p.19</ref>
-[[Franco Sbarro]], the Swiss exotic car designer, showed the Pilcar at the 1977 Geneva Salon. In 1979 a slightly modified Carville (by Vessa) was introduced. This 4-seat electric urban vehicle had a remarkable - and patented - system of an exchangeable rear package of battery, motor, transmission and rear wheels! With a top speed of 80kmh, this 1150kg vehicle had a range of 100km. As a concept, Sbarro was looking for licensees of this attractive but expensive vehicle but none came. Only 15 were built.<ref>Alle Autos der 80er Jahre, Roger Gloor, Motor Buch Verlag, 2012, p.122</ref>
-In 1988 the Swiss branch of Austrian car maker '''Steyr''' developed the Steyr-Diamant, an electric edition of the French Teilhol car which was a twopassenger NEV (neighbourhood elecric vehicle). With batteries and Bosch electric motor, the 660kg car had a top speed of 60kmh and a range of 60-70km. Although supported by the Alternative Energy Fund of the Bern Kanton, interest from consumers was low.<ref>Alle Autos der 80er Jahre, Roger Gloor, Motor Buch Verlag, 2012, p.592</ref>
-==1990s: Californian regulations, normal size EV’s, big manufacturers involved==
-[[File:1997-1999 Honda EV Plus 02.jpg|thumb|1997: The [[Honda EV Plus]], one of the cars introduced as a result of the CARB ZEV mandate: Zero Emission Vehicle]]
-=== From California dreaming to ZEV reality: environmental considerations become more prominent===
-In the early 1990s, the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB), the government of California's "clean air agency", began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to [[zero-emissions vehicle]]s such as electric vehicles.<ref>Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon (2009), Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 24 and 189–191, {{ISBN|978-0-19-537664-7}}</ref><ref name="movie">''[[Who Killed the Electric Car?]]'' Directed by Chris Paine, Distributed by Sony Pictures Classics</ref> In response, automakers developed electric models, including the
-[[Chrysler TEVan]] ''(1993-1995, 56 built, price $110.000)'',
-[[Ford Ranger EV]] pickup truck, (1997-2002, 1.500 built, price $52.720)
-[[GM EV1]] coupe (new design) (1997-1999, 1.117 built, price $33.995) available from Saturn dealerships
-[[Chevrolet S10 EV]] pickup, (1997-1998, 492 built, price ??)
-[[Honda EV Plus]] hatchback (new design), (1997-1999, 340 built, price $53.999)
-[[Nissan Altra|Nissan Altra EV]] miniwagon (1997-2001, 200 built, price ???) with Li-ion battery
-[[Toyota RAV4 EV]]'' midsize SUV (1997-2003, 1.484 built, price $42.000)''.
+In the early 1990s, the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB), the government of California's "clean air agency", began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to [[zero-emissions vehicle]]s such as electric vehicles.<ref>Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon (2009), Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 24 and 189–191, {{ISBN|978-0-19-537664-7}}</ref><ref name="movie">''[[Who Killed the Electric Car?]]'' Directed by Chris Paine, Distributed by Sony Pictures Classics</ref> In response, automakers developed electric models, including the [[Chrysler TEVan]], [[Ford Ranger EV]] pickup truck, [[GM EV1]] and [[Chevrolet S10 EV|S10 EV]] pickup, [[Honda EV Plus]] hatchback, Nissan lithium-battery [[Nissan Altra|Altra EV]] miniwagon and [[Toyota RAV4 EV]].
 The automakers were accused of pandering to the wishes of CARB in order to continue to be allowed to sell cars in the lucrative Californian market, while failing to adequately promote their electric vehicles in order to create the impression that the consumers were not interested in the cars, all the while joining oil industry lobbyists in vigorously protesting CARB's mandate.<ref name=movie/> GM's program came under particular scrutiny; in an unusual move, consumers were not allowed to purchase EV1s, but were instead asked to sign closed-end leases, meaning that the cars had to be returned to GM at the end of the lease period, with no option to purchase, despite leasee interest in continuing to own the cars.<ref name=movie/> Chrysler, Toyota, and a group of GM dealers sued CARB in Federal court, leading to the eventual neutering of CARB's [[Zero-emissions vehicle|ZEV]] Mandate.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
-After public protests by EV drivers' groups upset by the repossession of their cars, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EVs for sale to the general public during six months, up until 22 November 2002. The total number of electric RAV4's in California was 1.484 (sold between 1997 and 2003). Main characteristics of this SUV were a 50KW engine, a 26,5 NiMh Battery with 153&nbsp;km range and a curb weight of 1.560&nbsp;kg. Almost all other production electric cars were withdrawn from the market and were in some cases seen to have been [[Car crusher|destroyed]] by their manufacturers.<ref name=movie /> Toyota continues to support the several hundred Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public and in fleet usage. GM famously de-activated the few EV1s that were donated to engineering schools and museums.<ref>{{cite news|last=Adams |first=Noel |title = Why is GM Crushing Their EV-1s? |newspaper=Electrifying Times |date=2001-12-02 |url= http://www.electrifyingtimes.com/ev1crush.html}}</ref>
+After public protests by EV drivers' groups upset by the repossession of their cars, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EVs for sale to the general public during six months, up until 22 November 2002. Almost all other production electric cars were withdrawn from the market and were in some cases seen to have been [[Car crusher|destroyed]] by their manufacturers.<ref name=movie /> Toyota continues to support the several hundred Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public and in fleet usage. GM famously de-activated the few EV1s that were donated to engineering schools and museums.<ref>{{cite news|last=Adams |first=Noel |title = Why is GM Crushing Their EV-1s? |newspaper=Electrifying Times |date=2001-12-02 |url= http://www.electrifyingtimes.com/ev1crush.html}}</ref>
 Throughout the 1990s, interest in fuel-efficient or environmentally friendly cars declined among consumers in the United States, who instead favored [[sport utility vehicles]], which were affordable to operate despite their poor fuel efficiency thanks to lower gasoline prices. Domestic U.S. automakers chose to focus their product lines around the truck-based vehicles, which enjoyed larger profit margins than the smaller cars which were preferred in places like Europe or Japan.
-[[File:Toyota RAV4 EV WAS 2012 0759.JPG|thumb|Toyota RAV4 EV WAS 0759]]
 [[File:Zero Rally 2011 02 zoom.jpg|thumb|[[Th!nk City]] and [[Buddy (electric car)|Buddy]] in Oslo, Norway]]
 [[File:EV1 (6).jpg|thumb|right|The [[General Motors EV1]], one of the cars introduced due to the [[California Air Resources Board]] mandate, had a range of {{Convert|160|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip}} with [[Nickel–metal hydride battery|NiMH batteries]] in 1999.]]
+Most electric vehicles on the world roads were low-speed, low-range [[neighborhood electric vehicle]]s (NEVs). Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011.<ref name="NEVsales">{{cite web|url=http://www.autoobserver.com/2011/06/neighborhood-electric-vehicle-sales-to-climb.html|title=Neighborhood Electric Vehicle Sales To Climb|first=Danny|last=King|publisher=Edmunds Auto Observer|date=20 June 2011|access-date=2012-02-05|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120527110345/http://www.autoobserver.com/2011/06/neighborhood-electric-vehicle-sales-to-climb.html|archive-date=2012-05-27|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{As of|2006|07}}, there were between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed battery-powered vehicles in use in the United States, up from about 56,000 in 2004.<ref>{{cite news|last=Saranow |first=Jennifer |date=27 July 2006|title=The Electric Car Gets Some Muscle |url= http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06208/709068-185.stm|newspaper=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]|access-date=2009-04-24}}</ref> North America's top selling NEV is the [[Global Electric Motorcars]] (GEM) vehicles, with more than 50,000 units sold worldwide by mid 2014.<ref name="GEMsales">{{cite web|url= https://www.wsj.com/article/PR-CO-20140724-915574.html|title=Polaris GEM Introduces 2015 Models |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |date=2014-07-24 |access-date=2014-08-09}}</ref> The world's two largest NEV markets in 2011 were the United States, with 14,737 units sold, and France, with 2,231 units.<ref name="PikeR">{{cite web|url=http://www.pikeresearch.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/NEV-11-Executive-Summary.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307083002/http://www.pikeresearch.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/NEV-11-Executive-Summary.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-03-07 |title=Executive Summary: Neighborhood Electric Vehicles – Low Speed Electric Vehicles for Consumer and Fleet Markets |first=Dave |last=Hurst and Clint Wheelock |publisher=Pike Research |year=2011 |access-date=2012-02-05 }}</ref> Other micro electric cars sold in Europe was the [[Kewet]], since 1991, and replaced by the [[Buddy (electric car)|Buddy]], launched in 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puremobility.com/no/om-pure-mobility |title=Historien bak Buddy |website=Pure Mobility |location=Norway |language=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514162812/http://www.puremobility.com/no/om-pure-mobility |archive-date=2010-05-14 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Also the [[Th!nk City]] was launched in 2008 but production was halted due to financial difficulties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2007/12/think-begins-pr.html |title=Think Begins Production of New TH!NK City EV|publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2007-12-02 |access-date=2010-09-28}}</ref> Production restarted in [[Finland]] in December 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/11/think-restarts-production-in-finland/?scp=1&sq=Think%20Restarts%20Production%20in%20Finland&st=cse|title=Think Restarts Production in Finland|work=The New York Times|first=Jim |last=Montavalli |date=2009-12-11|access-date=2010-04-04}}</ref> The Th!nk was sold in several European countries and the U.S.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/09/thinkev-20100911.html#more|title=THINK Begins EV Sales in Finland |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=11 September 2010|access-date=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://green.autoblog.com/2010/09/13/think-kicks-off-sales-of-city-electric-vehicle-in-finland/|title=Think kicks off sales of City electric vehicle in Finland|publisher=AutoblogGreen |first=Eric |last=Loveday |date=2010-09-13 |access-date=2010-09-14}}</ref> In June 2011 Think Global filed for bankruptcy and production was halted.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.autonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20110622/COPY01/306229798/1193|title=Norwegian EV maker Think files for bankruptcy |first=Douglas A. |last=Bolduc |work=Automotive News |date=2011-06-22 |access-date=2011-06-23}}</ref> Worldwide sales reached 1,045 units by March 2011.<ref name="ThinkSales">{{cite web|url=http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2011/03/think-announces-36495-msrp-for-city-ev.html |title=Think Announces $36,495 MSRP for City EV |publisher=Edmunds.com |first=Scott |last=Doggett |date=2011-03-30 |access-date=2011-04-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110404093812/http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2011/03/think-announces-36495-msrp-for-city-ev.html |archive-date=2011-04-04}}</ref> A total of 200,000 low-speed small electric cars were sold in China in 2013, most of which are powered by [[lead-acid battery|lead-acid batteries]]. These electric vehicles are not considered by the government as [[new energy vehicle]]s due to safety and environmental concerns, and consequently, do not enjoy the same benefits as highway legal [[plug-in electric car]]s.<ref name="China2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/motoring/2014-01/11/content_17229981.htm|title=New-energy vehicles 'turning the corner' |first=Jiang |last=Xueqing |publisher=China Daily|date=2014-01-11|access-date=2014-01-12}}</ref>
-German sport- and premium-car builder '''B.M.W.''' from Munich introduced at the 1991 IAA (Internationale Automobil Ausstellung) in Frankfurt a prototype electric vehicle, the [[BMW E1]] (Z11). In 1993 a second protytype (Z15) - also intended as a so called technology bearer - a second version. That version was intended to be either, electric, petrol-engined or hybrid. Both cars were small 2+2 passenger cars - 346cm and 370cm long - with a 32kW electric motor. The first prototype weighed 900kg, had a top speed of 120kmh and a maximum range of 200km. The battery was of the Natrium-Sulphur type, weighed 200kg and had a capacity of 20kWh. At the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show in 1992, B.M.W.showed the E2 prototype, a four-passenger versions of the E1 more suitable to the american market with an amazing theoretical range of 430km!
-[[File:BMW E1 01.jpg|thumb|1993: BMW E1 (second prototype, Z15) 01]]
-=== Neighbourhood Electric Vehicles ===
-[[File:NEVMexico.jpg|thumb|GEM NEV charging in Mexico]]
-Most electric vehicles on the world roads were low-speed, low-range [[neighborhood electric vehicle]]s (NEVs). Pike Research estimated there were almost 479,000 NEVs on the world roads in 2011.<ref name="NEVsales">{{cite web|url=http://www.autoobserver.com/2011/06/neighborhood-electric-vehicle-sales-to-climb.html|title=Neighborhood Electric Vehicle Sales To Climb|first=Danny|last=King|publisher=Edmunds Auto Observer|date=20 June 2011|access-date=2012-02-05|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120527110345/http://www.autoobserver.com/2011/06/neighborhood-electric-vehicle-sales-to-climb.html|archive-date=2012-05-27|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{As of|2006|07}}, there were between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed battery-powered vehicles in use in the United States, up from about 56,000 in 2004.<ref>{{cite news|last=Saranow |first=Jennifer |date=27 July 2006|title=The Electric Car Gets Some Muscle |url= http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06208/709068-185.stm|newspaper=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]|access-date=2009-04-24}}</ref> North America's top selling NEV is the [[Global Electric Motorcars]] (GEM) vehicles, with more than 50,000 units sold worldwide by mid 2014.<ref name="GEMsales">{{cite web|url= https://www.wsj.com/article/PR-CO-20140724-915574.html|title=Polaris GEM Introduces 2015 Models |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |date=2014-07-24 |access-date=2014-08-09}}</ref> The world's two largest NEV markets in 2011 were the United States, with 14,737 units sold, and France, with 2,231 units.<ref name="PikeR">{{cite web|url=http://www.pikeresearch.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/NEV-11-Executive-Summary.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307083002/http://www.pikeresearch.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/NEV-11-Executive-Summary.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-03-07 |title=Executive Summary: Neighborhood Electric Vehicles – Low Speed Electric Vehicles for Consumer and Fleet Markets |first=Dave |last=Hurst and Clint Wheelock |publisher=Pike Research |year=2011 |access-date=2012-02-05 }}</ref> Other micro electric cars sold in Europe was the [[Kewet]], since 1991, and replaced by the [[Buddy (electric car)|Buddy]], launched in 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puremobility.com/no/om-pure-mobility |title=Historien bak Buddy |website=Pure Mobility |location=Norway |language=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514162812/http://www.puremobility.com/no/om-pure-mobility |archive-date=2010-05-14 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Also the [[Th!nk City]] was launched in 2008 but production was halted due to financial difficulties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2007/12/think-begins-pr.html |title=Think Begins Production of New TH!NK City EV|publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2007-12-02 |access-date=2010-09-28}}</ref> Production restarted in [[Finland]] in December 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/11/think-restarts-production-in-finland/?scp=1&sq=Think%20Restarts%20Production%20in%20Finland&st=cse|title=Think Restarts Production in Finland|work=The New York Times|first=Jim |last=Montavalli |date=2009-12-11|access-date=2010-04-04}}</ref> With a top speed of around 100KMh the Th!nk, however, was not just a NEV, but close to highway use. The Th!nk was sold in several European countries and the U.S.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/09/thinkev-20100911.html#more|title=THINK Begins EV Sales in Finland |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=11 September 2010|access-date=2010-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://green.autoblog.com/2010/09/13/think-kicks-off-sales-of-city-electric-vehicle-in-finland/|title=Think kicks off sales of City electric vehicle in Finland|publisher=AutoblogGreen |first=Eric |last=Loveday |date=2010-09-13 |access-date=2010-09-14}}</ref> In June 2011 Think Global filed for bankruptcy and production was halted.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.autonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20110622/COPY01/306229798/1193|title=Norwegian EV maker Think files for bankruptcy |first=Douglas A. |last=Bolduc |work=Automotive News |date=2011-06-22 |access-date=2011-06-23}}</ref> Worldwide sales reached 1,045 units by March 2011.<ref name="ThinkSales">{{cite web|url=http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2011/03/think-announces-36495-msrp-for-city-ev.html |title=Think Announces $36,495 MSRP for City EV |publisher=Edmunds.com |first=Scott |last=Doggett |date=2011-03-30 |access-date=2011-04-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110404093812/http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2011/03/think-announces-36495-msrp-for-city-ev.html |archive-date=2011-04-04}}</ref> A total of 200,000 low-speed small electric cars were sold in China in 2013, most of which are powered by [[lead-acid battery|lead-acid batteries]]. These electric vehicles are not considered by the government as [[new energy vehicle]]s due to safety and environmental concerns, and consequently, do not enjoy the same benefits as highway legal [[plug-in electric car]]s.<ref name="China2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/motoring/2014-01/11/content_17229981.htm|title=New-energy vehicles 'turning the corner' |first=Jiang |last=Xueqing |publisher=China Daily|date=2014-01-11|access-date=2014-01-12}}</ref>
-===Missed opportunity? The interesting case of the General Motors EV1===
-[[File:EV1 charging at Walnut Creek BART Station 2002.jpg|thumb|2002: GM EV1 charging at Walnut Creek BART Station, California, USA]]
-==2000s: Highway-capable electric cars, a new battery and the hybrid experience==
-The 2000s can be summarized as:
-* a decade with important technical breakthroughs, like the Lithium-Ion battery and MOS technology
-* a decade where partially electric vehicles, like the hybrid Toyota Prius, paved the way for acceptance of electric motors/generators and batteries in cars
-* a decade where highway speeds and highway ranges became possible for electric cars
-=== MOSFET and Lithium-ion represent big steps forward in EV technology===
+==2000s: Modern highway-capable electric cars==
 The emergence of [[metal-oxide-semiconductor]] (MOS) technology led to the development of modern [[electric road vehicles]].<ref name="Gosden">{{cite journal |last1=Gosden |first1=D.F. |title=Modern Electric Vehicle Technology using an AC Motor Drive |journal=Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering |date=March 1990 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=21–7 |url=https://trid.trb.org/view/353176 |publisher=[[Institution of Engineers Australia]] |issn=0725-2986}}</ref> The [[MOSFET]] (MOS field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor), invented by [[Mohamed M. Atalla]] and [[Dawon Kahng]] at [[Bell Labs]] in 1959,<ref name="computerhistory">{{cite journal|url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/|title=1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated|journal=The Silicon Engine|publisher=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory-transistor">{{cite web |title=Who Invented the Transistor? |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |date=4 December 2013 |access-date=20 July 2019}}</ref> led to the development of the [[power MOSFET]] by [[Hitachi]] in 1969,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oxner |first1=E. S. |title=Fet Technology and Application |date=1988 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780824780500 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AE-0e-sAnsC&pg=PA18}}</ref> and the [[integrated circuit|single-chip]] [[microprocessor]] by [[Federico Faggin]], [[Marcian Hoff]], [[Masatoshi Shima]] and [[Stanley Mazor]] at [[Intel]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite web |title=1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip |website=The Silicon Engine |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/ |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref> The power MOSFET and the [[microcontroller]], a type of single-chip microprocessor, led to significant advances in electric vehicle technology. MOSFET [[power converter]]s allowed operation at much higher switching frequencies, made it easier to drive, reduced power losses, and significantly reduced prices, while single-chip microcontrollers could manage all aspects of the drive control and had the capacity for battery management.<ref name="Gosden"/>
 Another important technology that enabled modern highway-capable electric cars is the [[lithium-ion battery]].<ref name="Scrosati">{{cite book |last1=Scrosati |first1=Bruno |last2=Garche |first2=Jurgen |last3=Tillmetz |first3=Werner |title=Advances in Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles |date=2015 |publisher=[[Woodhead Publishing]] |isbn=9781782423980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iEmdBAAAQBAJ}}</ref> It was invented by [[John Goodenough]], [[Rachid Yazami]] and [[Akira Yoshino]] in the 1980s,<ref name="ieee">{{cite web |title=IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies Recipients |url=https://www.ieee.org/about/awards/bios/environmental-safety-recipients.html |website=[[IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies]] |publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] |access-date=29 July 2019}}</ref> and commercialized by [[Sony]] and [[Asahi Kasei]] in 1991.<ref name="sony91">{{cite web |url=http://www.sonyenergy-devices.co.jp/en/keyword |title=Keywords to understanding Sony Energy Devices – keyword 1991 |ref=keyword 1991 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304224245/http://www.sonyenergy-devices.co.jp/en/keyword/ |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The lithium-ion battery was responsible for the development of electric vehicles capable of long-distance travel.<ref name="Scrosati"/>
+California electric car maker [[Tesla Motors]] began development in 2004 on the [[Tesla Roadster (2008)|Tesla Roadster]], which was first delivered to customers in 2008.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.teslamotors.com/blog2/?p=57 |title=We have begun regular production of the Tesla Roadster |publisher=Tesla Motors |date=2008-03-17 |access-date=2008-03-20}}</ref> The Roadster was the first highway legal [[serial production]] all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than {{convert|200|mi|abbr=in|order=flip}} per charge.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://cleantechnica.com/2015/04/26/electric-car-history/ | title=Electric Car Evolution |first=Zachary |last= Shahan |publisher=Clean Technica |date = 2015-04-26| access-date=2016-09-08}} ''2008: The Tesla Roadster becomes the first production electric vehicle to use lithium-ion battery cells as well as the first production electric vehicle to have a range of over 200 miles on a single charge.''</ref> Since 2008, Tesla sold approximately 2,450 Roadsters in over 30 countries through December 2012.<ref name="Roadster2450">{{cite web|title=SEC Form 10-K for Fiscal Year Ended Dec 31, 2012, Commission File Number: 001-34756, Tesla Motors, Inc.|url=http://ir.teslamotors.com/secfiling.cfm?filingid=1193125-13-96241&cik=|publisher=U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|access-date=2014-02-25|quote=As of December 31, 2012, we had delivered approximately 2,450 Tesla Roadsters to customers in over 30 countries.|date=2016-02-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516203427/http://ir.teslamotors.com/secfiling.cfm?filingid=1193125-13-96241&cik=|archive-date=16 May 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Tesla sold the Roadster until early 2012, when its supply of [[Lotus Elise]] [[vehicle glider|glider]]s ran out, as its contract with [[Lotus Cars]] for 2,500 gliders expired at the end of 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/driveon/post/2011/08/tesla-boasts-about-electric-car-deliveries-plans-for-sedan/1 |title=Tesla boasts about electric car deliveries, plans for sedan |first=Chris |last=Woodyard |work=USA Today |date=2011-08-03 |access-date=2011-10-04}}</ref><ref name="NYT050611">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/08/automobiles/08TESLA.html?_r=1&emc=eta1|title=Tesla Prepares for a Gap as Roadster Winds Down |first=Josie |last=Garthwaite|newspaper=The New York Times |date=2011-05-06 |access-date=2011-05-07}}</ref> Tesla stopped taking orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market in August 2011,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.popsci.com/cars/article/2011-06/farewell-roadster-tesla-will-stop-taking-orders-its-iconic-ev-two-months |title=Farewell Roadster: Tesla Will Stop Taking Orders for its Iconic EV in Two Months |first=Clay |last=Dillow |work=Popular Science |location=US |date=2011-06-24 |access-date=2017-12-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://money.cnn.com/2011/06/21/autos/tesla_roadster_selling_out/index.htm |title=Tesla Roadster reaches the end of the line |first=Peter |last=Valdes-Dapena |work=CNN Money |location=US |date=2011-06-22 |access-date=2017-12-27}}</ref> and the 2012 Tesla Roadster was sold in limited numbers only in Europe, Asia and Australia.<ref name="TRSalesDec11">{{cite web|url=http://green.autoblog.com/2012/01/11/tesla-continues-roadster-sales-in-europe-asia-and-australia/#continued|title=Tesla continues Roadster sales with tweaks in Europe, Asia and Australia |first=Danny |last=King |publisher=Autoblog Green |date=2012-01-11 |access-date=2012-01-13}}</ref><ref name="LastSales">{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1071608_tesla-updates-roadster-for-2012-theres-just-one-catch|title=Tesla Updates Roadster For 2012. There's Just One Catch... |first=Nikki |last=Gordon-Bloomfield |publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2012-01-11 |access-date=2012-01-16}}</ref>
-=== New kid on the block: Elon Musk enters the field of electric vehicles===
-[[File:Roadster 2.5 windmills trimmed.jpg|thumb|Roadster 2.5 windmills trimmed]]
-California electric car maker '''[[Tesla Motors]]''' began development in 2004 on the [[Tesla Roadster (2008)|Tesla Roadster]], which was first delivered to customers in 2008.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.teslamotors.com/blog2/?p=57 |title=We have begun regular production of the Tesla Roadster |publisher=Tesla Motors |date=2008-03-17 |access-date=2008-03-20}}</ref> The Roadster was the first highway legal [[serial production]] all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than {{convert|200|mi|abbr=in|order=flip}} per charge.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://cleantechnica.com/2015/04/26/electric-car-history/ | title=Electric Car Evolution |first=Zachary |last= Shahan |publisher=Clean Technica |date = 2015-04-26| access-date=2016-09-08}} ''2008: The Tesla Roadster becomes the first production electric vehicle to use lithium-ion battery cells as well as the first production electric vehicle to have a range of over 200 miles on a single charge.''</ref> Since 2008, Tesla sold approximately 2,450 Roadsters in over 30 countries through December 2012.<ref name="Roadster2450">{{cite web|title=SEC Form 10-K for Fiscal Year Ended Dec 31, 2012, Commission File Number: 001-34756, Tesla Motors, Inc.|url=http://ir.teslamotors.com/secfiling.cfm?filingid=1193125-13-96241&cik=|publisher=U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|access-date=2014-02-25|quote=As of December 31, 2012, we had delivered approximately 2,450 Tesla Roadsters to customers in over 30 countries.|date=2016-02-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516203427/http://ir.teslamotors.com/secfiling.cfm?filingid=1193125-13-96241&cik=|archive-date=16 May 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Tesla sold the Roadster until early 2012, when its supply of [[Lotus Elise]] [[vehicle glider|glider]]s ran out, as its contract with [[Lotus Cars]] for 2,500 gliders expired at the end of 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/driveon/post/2011/08/tesla-boasts-about-electric-car-deliveries-plans-for-sedan/1 |title=Tesla boasts about electric car deliveries, plans for sedan |first=Chris |last=Woodyard |work=USA Today |date=2011-08-03 |access-date=2011-10-04}}</ref><ref name="NYT050611">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/08/automobiles/08TESLA.html?_r=1&emc=eta1|title=Tesla Prepares for a Gap as Roadster Winds Down |first=Josie |last=Garthwaite|newspaper=The New York Times |date=2011-05-06 |access-date=2011-05-07}}</ref> Tesla stopped taking orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market in August 2011,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.popsci.com/cars/article/2011-06/farewell-roadster-tesla-will-stop-taking-orders-its-iconic-ev-two-months |title=Farewell Roadster: Tesla Will Stop Taking Orders for its Iconic EV in Two Months |first=Clay |last=Dillow |work=Popular Science |location=US |date=2011-06-24 |access-date=2017-12-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://money.cnn.com/2011/06/21/autos/tesla_roadster_selling_out/index.htm |title=Tesla Roadster reaches the end of the line |first=Peter |last=Valdes-Dapena |work=CNN Money |location=US |date=2011-06-22 |access-date=2017-12-27}}</ref> and the 2012 Tesla Roadster was sold in limited numbers only in Europe, Asia and Australia.<ref name="TRSalesDec11">{{cite web|url=http://green.autoblog.com/2012/01/11/tesla-continues-roadster-sales-in-europe-asia-and-australia/#continued|title=Tesla continues Roadster sales with tweaks in Europe, Asia and Australia |first=Danny |last=King |publisher=Autoblog Green |date=2012-01-11 |access-date=2012-01-13}}</ref><ref name="LastSales">{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1071608_tesla-updates-roadster-for-2012-theres-just-one-catch|title=Tesla Updates Roadster For 2012. There's Just One Catch... |first=Nikki |last=Gordon-Bloomfield |publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2012-01-11 |access-date=2012-01-16}}</ref>
-[[File:IMiEV2009.jpg|thumb|2009: The [[Mitsubishi i-MiEV]] was launched in Japan]]
+[[File:IMiEV2009.jpg|thumb|The [[Mitsubishi i-MiEV]] was launched in Japan in 2009]]
-=== The Japanese EV surprise: Mitsubishi and Nissan lead the way, not Toyota and Honda===
 The [[Mitsubishi i-MiEV]] was launched in Japan for fleet customers in July 2009, and for individual customers in April 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2009/06/imiev-20090605.html|title=Mitsubishi Motors Begins Production of i-MiEV; Targeting 1,400 Units in Fiscal 2009 |publisher=Green Car Congress|date=5 June 2009|access-date=2010-04-04}}</ref><ref name="AP100331">{{cite news |title=Japanese Start Buying Affordable Electric Cars|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2011495208_apasjapanelectriccar.html?syndication=rss |agency=Associated Press |first=Yuri |last=Kageyama |date=2010-03-31 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |access-date=2010-04-24}}</ref><ref name="Reuters100330">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTOE62T09V20100330 |title=Mitsubishi Motors lowers price of electric i-MiEV|date=2010-03-30 |first=Chang-Ran |last=Kim |work=Reuters|access-date=2020-05-22 }}</ref> followed by sales to the public in Hong Kong in May 2010, and Australia in July 2010 via leasing.<ref name="HK0510">{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/05/hksar-20100520.html#more|title=Mitsubishi Begins Sales of i-MiEV to Individuals in Hong Kong; First Individual Sales Outside of Japan|publisher=Green Car Congress|date=2010-05-20 |access-date=2010-05-21}}</ref><ref name="AUST10">{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/06/imiev-20100602.html#more |title=Mitsubishi Motors to Begin Shipping i-MiEV to Australia in July; 2nd Market Outside Japan |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2010-06-02 |access-date=2010-06-02}}</ref> The i-MiEV was launched in Europe in December 2010, including a rebadged version sold in Europe as [[Peugeot iOn]] and [[Citroën C-Zero]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2011/01/imiev-20110114.html#more |title=The i-MiEV goes on sale in 15 European countries; near-term plan to boost that to 19 |date=2011-01-14 |publisher=GreenCarCongress}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1066863_2012-mitsubishi-i-first-drive-u-s--spec-miev|title=2012 Mitsubishi i: First Drive, U.S.-Spec MiEV |first=Bengt |last=Halvorson |publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2011-10-04 |access-date=2011-10-04}}</ref> The market launch in the Americas began in [[Costa Rica]] in February 2011, followed by [[Chile]] in May 2011.<ref name="CR02">{{cite web|url= http://insidecostarica.com/dailynews/2010/december/27/costarica10122704.htm |title=Mitsubishi To Launch Its Electric Car First in Costa Rica |publisher=InsideCostaRica |date=2010-12-27 |access-date=2011-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cl.noticias.autocosmos.yahoo.net/2011/05/04/mitsubishi-i-miev-lanzado-oficialmente-en-chile |language=es |title=Mitsubishi i-MIEV: Lanzado oficialmente en Chile |first=Alejandro Marimán |last=Ibarra |publisher=Yahoo Chile |date=2011-05-04 |access-date=2011-07-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021072640/http://cl.noticias.autocosmos.yahoo.net/2011/05/04/mitsubishi-i-miev-lanzado-oficialmente-en-chile |archive-date=2011-10-21}}</ref> Fleet and retail customer deliveries in the U.S. and Canada began in December 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://content.usatoday.com/communities/driveon/post/2011/12/mitsubishi-delivers-its-first-i-electric-car/1 |title=Mitsubishi delivers its first 'i' electric car |first=Chris |last=Woodyard |work=USA Today |date=2011-12-08 |access-date=2011-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url= http://www.13abc.com/story/16307972/mitsubishi-motors-governor-of-hawaii-and-cutter-mitsubishi-hand-over-keys-to-first-2012-mitsubishi-i-miev-retail-customer |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120719024147/http://www.13abc.com/story/16307972/mitsubishi-motors-governor-of-hawaii-and-cutter-mitsubishi-hand-over-keys-to-first-2012-mitsubishi-i-miev-retail-customer |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-07-19 |title=Mitsubishi Motors, Governor of Hawaii and Cutter Mitsubishi Hand Over Keys to First 2012 Mitsubishi i-MiEV Retail Customer |author=Mitsubishi Motors North America |work=ABC Action News |date=2011-12-12 |access-date=2011-12-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://green.autoblog.com/2011/06/08/mitsubishi-sets-canadian-i-miev-price-at-32-998/ |title=Mitsubishi sets Canadian i-MiEV price at $32,998 |first=Sebastian |last=Blanco |publisher=AutoblogGreen |date=2011-06-08 |access-date=2011-06-08}}</ref> Accounting for all vehicles of the iMiEV brand, Mitsubishi reports around 27,200 units sold or exported since 2009 through December 2012, including the [[Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV|minicab MiEV]]s sold in Japan, and the units rebadged and sold as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero in the European market.<ref name="iMiEVGlobal">{{cite web|url= http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1081892_mitsubishi-i-miev-electric-cars-recalled-to-fix-braking-problem |title=Mitsubishi i-MiEV Electric Cars Recalled To Fix Braking Problem |first=Antony |last=Ingram |publisher=Green Car Reports |date=2013-01-24 |access-date=2013-02-09}}</ref>
 Senior leaders at several large [[automaker]]s, including [[Nissan]] and [[General Motors]], have stated that the Roadster was a [[catalyst]] which demonstrated that there is pent-up consumer demand for more efficient vehicles. In an August 2009 edition of The New Yorker, GM vice-chairman [[Bob Lutz (businessman)|Bob Lutz]] was quoted as saying, "''All the geniuses here at General Motors kept saying lithium-ion technology is 10 years away, and Toyota agreed with us – and boom, along comes Tesla. So I said, 'How come some tiny little California startup, run by guys who know nothing about the car business, can do this, and we can't?' That was the crowbar that helped break up the log jam.''"<ref>{{cite web|last=Friend |first=Tad |url= http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/08/24/090824fa_fact_friend |title=Elon Musk and electric cars |work=The New Yorker |date=2009-01-07 |access-date=2010-07-16}}</ref>
+==2010s==
-==2010s: Away from the niches, the importance of infrastructure and the way to premium desirability==
-The 2010s can be summarized as:
-* the decade in which electric vehicles became mainstream. The introduction of 5 door family hatchbacks was a clear move away from their mostly urban size and urban range predecessors.
-* the decade in which public battery charging stations were built in many countries, more or less creating an overlapping network (and the decade in which the network for Hydrogen Electric Vehicles - H2EV's? - fell behind)
-* the decade where the development was reversed from bottom-up (small cars with a somewhat utilitairian look) to top-down (fast, premium looking luxury sedans), creating a so-called elitarian innovation movement
-The changes in this decade are so fast that a year-by-year treatment is required
-=== 2010 ===
 [[File:2020+ Electric vehicle stock - International Energy Agency.svg|thumb|upright=1.5 |The global stock of electric vehicles grew steadily through the 2010s.<ref name=IntEnergyAgcy_Outlook2021>{{cite web |title=Global EV Outlook 2021 / Technology Report |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021 |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429190733/https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021 |archive-date=29 April 2021 |date=April 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
 [[File:First Customer owned Nissan Leaf.jpg|thumb|The first [[Nissan Leaf]] delivered in the U.S. went to a customer in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] ]]
@@ Line 334: / Line 137: @@
  |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2013-04-17|access-date=2013-04-21}}</ref> On 26 May 2013, Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1084406_better-place-electric-car-service-files-for-bankruptcy |title=Better Place Electric-Car Service Files For Bankruptcy |first=John |last=Voelcker |publisher=Green Car Reports |date=2013-05-26 |access-date=2013-05-26}}</ref> The company's financial difficulties were caused by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about {{USD|850}} million in private capital, and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Less than 1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars were deployed in Israel and around 400 units in Denmark.<ref name="NYT052613">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/27/business/global/israeli-electric-car-company-files-for-liquidation.html?_r=0 |title=Israeli Venture Meant to Serve Electric Cars Is Ending Its Run |first=Isabel |last=Kershner |work=The New York Times |date=2013-05-26|access-date=2013-05-27}}</ref><ref name="JPost052613">{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Business/Business-News/Death-of-Better-Place-Electric-car-co-to-dissolve-314380 |title=Death of Better Place: Electric car co. to dissolve |first=Niv |last=Elis |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=2013-05-26 |access-date=2013-05-30}}</ref>
-=== 2011 ===
 The [[Smart electric drive]], [[Wheego Whip LiFe]], [[Mia electric]], [[Volvo C30 Electric]], and the [[Ford Focus Electric]] were launched for retail customers during 2011. The [[BYD e6]], released initially for fleet customers in 2010, began retail sales in [[Shenzhen, China]] in October 2011.<ref>{{cite news|title=First Pure-Electric Vehicle now available for Consumers in China |url=http://www.bydenergy.com/bydenergy/energy/News%20Center/News/78.html |access-date=2011-10-29 |work=BYD Company |date=2011-10-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111101200501/http://www.bydenergy.com/bydenergy/energy/News%20Center/News/78.html |archive-date=2011-11-01}}</ref> The [[Bolloré Bluecar]] was released in December 2011 and deployed for use in the [[Autolib']] [[carsharing]] service in Paris.<ref name="Launch1">{{cite web |url=http://www.sustainableguernsey.info/blog/2011/12/autolib-electric-car-sharing-service-launches-in-paris-france/ |title=Autolib' electric car sharing service launches in Paris, France |first=Richard |last=Lord |publisher=Sustainable Guernsey |date=2011-12-05 |access-date=2011-12-20}}</ref> Leasing to individual and corporate customers began in October 2012 and is limited to the [[Île-de-France]] area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.autonews.fr/dossiers/votre-quotidien/90768-bollore-blucear-paris-location |title=Louez une Bluecarpour 500 € par mois |language=fr |trans-title=Lease a Bluecar for €500 per month |first=Laurent |last=Lepsch |publisher=Auto News |date=2012-10-08 |access-date=2012-10-12}}</ref> In February 2011, the Mitsubishi i MiEV became the first electric car to sell more than 10,000 units, including the models badged in Europe as Citroën C-Zero and Peugeot. The record was officially registered by [[Guinness World Records]]. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf overtook the i MiEV as the best selling all-electric car ever,<ref name="Guinness">{{cite news|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-10000/best-selling-electric-car/|title=Best-selling electric car|author=[[Guinness World Records]]|work=Guinness World Records|year=2012|access-date=2020-05-22|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130216050030/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-10000/best-selling-electric-car/|archive-date=2013-02-16}}</ref> and by February 2013 global sales of the Leaf reached the 50,000 unit mark.<ref name="50KLeafs">{{cite press release|url= http://nissannews.com/en-US/nissan/usa/releases/nissan-leaf-smashes-50-000-global-sales-milestone |title=Nissan LEAF Smashes 50,000 Global Sales Milestone|publisher=Nissan Media Room |date=2013-02-14 |access-date=2013-02-15}}</ref>
+The next Tesla vehicle, the [[Tesla Model S|Model S]], was released in the U.S. on 22 June 2012<ref name="1stModelS">{{cite news |url=http://www.mercurynews.com/business/ci_20919722/silicon-valley-milestone-tesla-motors-begins-delivering-model?refresh=no |title=In a Silicon Valley milestone, Tesla Motors begins delivering Model S electric cars |last=Boudreau |first=John |newspaper=San Jose Mercury News |date=2012-06-22 |access-date=2012-06-22}}</ref> and the first delivery of a Model S to a retail customer in Europe took place on 7 August 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1086101_first-2013-tesla-model-s-delivered-outside-north-america--in-oslo|title=First 2013 Tesla Model S Delivered Outside North America--In Oslo |last=Ingram |first=Antony |work=Green Car Reports |date=2013-08-07 |access-date=2013-08-07}}</ref> Deliveries in China began on 22 April 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/business/autos/highway1/la-fi-hy-tesla-elon-musk-china-20140422,0,4201103.story#axzz2zd58LPWF |title=Tesla delivers its first electric cars in China; delays upset some |last=Makinen |first=Julie |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=2014-04-22 |access-date=2014-05-07}}</ref> The next model was the [[Tesla Model X]].<ref name="Deliveries3Q2015">{{cite web|url=http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/05/tesla-model-x-delayed-again/|title=Tesla Model X delayed, again, but Musk says Model S demand remains high |first=Sebastian |last=Blanco |publisher=Autoblog Green |date=2014-11-05 |access-date=2014-11-05}}</ref> Other models released to the market in 2012 and 2013 include the [[BMW ActiveE]], [[Coda (electric car)|Coda]], [[Renault Fluence Z.E.]], [[Honda Fit EV]], [[Toyota RAV4 EV#Second generation|Toyota RAV4 EV]], [[Renault Zoe]], [[Roewe E50]], [[Mahindra e2o]], [[Chevrolet Spark EV]], [[Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG Electric Drive]], [[Fiat 500e]], [[Volkswagen e-Up!]], [[BMW i3]], and [[Kandi EV]]. Toyota released the [[Scion iQ EV]] in the U.S. (Toyota eQ in Japan) in 2013. The car production is limited to 100 units. The first 30 units were delivered to the [[University of California, Irvine]] in March 2013 for use in its Zero Emission Vehicle-Network Enabled Transport (ZEV-NET) [[carsharing]] fleet. Toyota announced that 90 out of the 100 vehicles produced globally will be placed in carsharing demonstration projects in the United States and the rest in Japan.<ref name="UCIrvine">{{cite press release|url= http://news.uci.edu/press-releases/uc-irvines-car-sharing-program-charges-ahead/ |title=UC Irvine's car-sharing program charges ahead |publisher=University of California, Irvine |date=2013-03-21 |access-date=2013-03-28}}</ref>
-=== 2012 ===
-The next Tesla vehicle, the [[Tesla Model S|Model S]], was released in the U.S. on 22 June 2012<ref name="1stModelS">{{cite news |url=http://www.mercurynews.com/business/ci_20919722/silicon-valley-milestone-tesla-motors-begins-delivering-model?refresh=no |title=In a Silicon Valley milestone, Tesla Motors begins delivering Model S electric cars |last=Boudreau |first=John |newspaper=San Jose Mercury News |date=2012-06-22 |access-date=2012-06-22}}</ref> and the first delivery of a Model S to a retail customer in Europe took place on 7 August 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1086101_first-2013-tesla-model-s-delivered-outside-north-america--in-oslo|title=First 2013 Tesla Model S Delivered Outside North America--In Oslo |last=Ingram |first=Antony |work=Green Car Reports |date=2013-08-07 |access-date=2013-08-07}}</ref> Deliveries in China began on 22 April 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/business/autos/highway1/la-fi-hy-tesla-elon-musk-china-20140422,0,4201103.story#axzz2zd58LPWF |title=Tesla delivers its first electric cars in China; delays upset some |last=Makinen |first=Julie |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=2014-04-22 |access-date=2014-05-07}}</ref> The next model was the [[Tesla Model X]], of which deliveries started september 29, 2015.<ref name="Deliveries3Q2015">{{cite web|url=http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/05/tesla-model-x-delayed-again/|title=Tesla Model X delayed, again, but Musk says Model S demand remains high |first=Sebastian |last=Blanco |publisher=Autoblog Green |date=2014-11-05 |access-date=2014-11-05}}</ref> Other models released to the market in 2012 and 2013 include the [[BMW ActiveE]], [[Coda (electric car)|Coda]], [[Renault Fluence Z.E.]], [[Honda Fit EV]], [[Toyota RAV4 EV#Second generation|Toyota RAV4 EV]], [[Renault Zoe]], [[Roewe E50]], [[Mahindra e2o]], [[Chevrolet Spark EV]], [[Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG Electric Drive]], [[Fiat 500e]], [[Volkswagen e-Up!]], [[BMW i3]], and [[Kandi EV]]. Toyota released the [[Scion iQ EV]] in the U.S. (Toyota eQ in Japan) in 2013. The car production is limited to 100 units. The first 30 units were delivered to the [[University of California, Irvine]] in March 2013 for use in its Zero Emission Vehicle-Network Enabled Transport (ZEV-NET) [[carsharing]] fleet. Toyota announced that 90 out of the 100 vehicles produced globally will be placed in carsharing demonstration projects in the United States and the rest in Japan.<ref name="UCIrvine">{{cite press release|url= http://news.uci.edu/press-releases/uc-irvines-car-sharing-program-charges-ahead/ |title=UC Irvine's car-sharing program charges ahead |publisher=University of California, Irvine |date=2013-03-21 |access-date=2013-03-28}}</ref>
 The Coda sedan went out of production in 2013, after selling only about 100 units in California. Its manufacturer, [[Coda Automotive]], filed for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection]] on 1 May 2013. The company stated that it expects to emerge from the bankruptcy process to focus on energy storage solutions as it has decided to abandon car manufacturing.<ref name="Bankruptcy">{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/02/business/global/02iht-coda02.html?ref=automobiles&_r=0 |title=Electric Car Maker Files for Bankruptcy Protection |agency=Reuters |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2013-05-01 |access-date=2013-05-01}}</ref>
 The Tesla Model S ranked as the top selling [[plug-in electric car]] in North America during the first quarter of 2013 with 4,900 cars sold, ahead of the [[Nissan Leaf]] (3,695).<ref name="Tesla1Q2013">{{cite news |url=http://origin-www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-08/tesla-posts-first-quarterly-profit-on-model-s-deliveries.html |title=Tesla Posts First Quarterly Profit on Model S Deliveries |first=Alan |last=Ohnsman |work=Bloomberg |date=2013-05-08 |access-date=2013-05-08 |quote=During Q1 2013 a total of 4,900 Model S cars were delivered in North America (mostly in the U.S. and a few units delivered in Canada. Volt and Leaf sales correspond to the U.S. and Canada combined. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213742/http://origin-www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-08/tesla-posts-first-quarterly-profit-on-model-s-deliveries.html |archive-date=4 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> European retail deliveries of the Tesla Model S began in [[Oslo]] in August 2013,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1086101_first-2013-tesla-model-s-delivered-outside-north-america--in-oslo|title=First 2013 Tesla Model S Delivered Outside North America--In Oslo |first=Antony |last=Ingram |publisher=Green Car Reports |date=2013-08-07|access-date=2013-08-07}}</ref> and during its first full month in the market, the Model S ranked as the top selling car in Norway with 616 units delivered, representing a market share of 5.1% of all the new cars sold in the country in September 2013, becoming the first electric car to top the new car sales ranking in any country, and contributing to a record all-electric car [[market share]] of 8.6% of new car sales during that month.<ref name="SalesNorway092013">{{cite web|url=http://www.gronnbil.no/nyheter/norges-mest-solgte-bil-i-september-er-en-elbil-article352-239.html |title=Norges mest solgte bil i september er en elbil |language=no |trans-title=Norway's best selling car in September is an electric vehicle |publisher=Grønn bil |date=2013-10-01 |access-date=2013-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215426/http://www.gronnbil.no/nyheter/norges-mest-solgte-bil-i-september-er-en-elbil-article352-239.html |archive-date=2013-10-04}}</ref><ref name="NorwayTop092013">{{cite web|url=http://bestsellingcarsblog.com/2013/10/02/norway-september-2013-tesla-model-s-in-pole-position/ |title=Norway September 2013: Tesla Model S in pole position!|first=Mat |last=Gasnier |publisher=Best Selling Cars Blog|date=2013-10-02 |access-date=2013-10-02}}</ref> In October 2013, an electric car was the best selling car in the country for a second month in a row. This time was the Nissan Leaf with 716 units sold, representing a 5.6% of new car sales that month.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://europe.autonews.com/article/20131101/ANE/131109979?template=mobile02|title=Nissan Leaf tops Norway Oct. car sales, beats Toyota Auris, VW Golf |agency=Reuters |publisher=Automotive News Europe|date=2013-11-01 |access-date=2013-11-02}}</ref><ref name="SalesNorway102013">{{cite web|url= http://bestsellingcarsblog.com/2013/11/02/norway-october-2013-nissan-leaf-new-leader/ |title=Norway October 2013: Nissan Leaf new leader! |first=Mat |last=Gasnier|publisher=Best Selling Cars Blog|date=2013-11-02|access-date=2013-11-02}}</ref>
-=== 2013 ===
 [[File:BMW i3 04 2015 SFO 2899.JPG|thumb|Retail deliveries of the [[BMW i3]] began in Europe in November 2013<ref>{{cite press release|url= https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/pressclub/p/gb/pressDetail.html?title=the-new-bmw-i3-press-pack&outputChannelId=8&id=T0154004EN_GB&left_menu_item=node__6728 |title=The new BMW i3 - Press pack |work=BMW Group |date=2013-11-06 |access-date=2013-11-07}}</ref> The i3 ranked as the third best selling all-electric car in 2014.<ref name=GlobalTop2014/>]]
@@ Line 350: / Line 149: @@
 The [[Renault–Nissan Alliance]] reached global sales of 100,000 all-electric vehicles in July 2013.<ref name="RN100K">{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2013/07/ennissan-20130723.html|title=Renault-Nissan sells its 100,000th electric car |publisher=Green Car Congress |author=Renault Media|date=2013-07-23|access-date=2013-07-28}}</ref> The 100,000th customer was a U.S. student who bought a Nissan Leaf.<ref>{{cite press release|url= http://media.renault.com/global/en-gb/alliance/Media/PressRelease.aspx?mediaid=50002&nodeid=267&pagetomediaid= |title=Renault-Nissan sells its 100,000th Zero-Emission car |work=Renault Media |date=2013-07-23 |access-date=2013-07-28}}</ref> In mid January 2014, global sales of the Nissan Leaf reached the 100,000 unit milestone, representing a 45% market share of worldwide pure electric vehicles sold since 2010.<ref name="Leaf100K">{{cite press release|url= http://www.automotiveworld.com/news-releases/nissan-leaf-global-sales-reach-100000-units/ |title=Nissan LEAF global sales reach 100,000 units |author=Nissan News Release |work=Automotive World |date=2014-01-20 |access-date=2014-01-20}}</ref>
-=== 2014 ===
 {{As of|2014|06}}, there were over 500,000 plug-in electric passenger cars and utility vans in the world, with the U.S. leading plug-in electric car sales with a 45% share of global sales.<ref name="500KGlobal062014">{{cite web|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/plug-in-car-sales-cross-global-half-million-mark/|title=Plug-In Car Sales Cross Global Half-Million Mark|last=Cobb|first=Jeff|work=HybridCars.com|date=2014-07-09|access-date=2014-07-10}}</ref><ref name="GlobalShare">{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2014/06/25/mercedes-benz-bmw-battle-shifts-to-plug-in-electric-vehicles-in-the-u-s/|title=Mercedes-Benz-BMW Battle Shifts To Plug-In Electric Vehicles in the U.S.|work=Forbes|date=2014-06-25|access-date=2014-07-10}}</ref> In September 2014, sales of [[plug-in electric car]]s in the United States reached the 250,000 unit milestone.<ref name="US250K">{{cite news|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/americans-buy-their-250000th-plug-in-car/|title=Americans Buy Their 250,000th Plug-In Car|first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com|date=2014-09-09|access-date=2014-10-04}}</ref> Global cumulative sales of the Tesla Model S passed the 50,000 unit milestone in October 2014.<ref name="ModelS75K">{{cite news|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-due-to-sell-75000th-model-s-this-month/|title=Tesla Due To Sell 75,000th Model S This Month |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com|date=2015-06-16|access-date=2015-06-17}}</ref> In November 2014 the Renault–Nissan Alliance reached 200,000 all-electric vehicles delivered globally, representing a 58% share of the global light-duty all-electric market segment.<ref name="RN200K">{{cite press release |url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2014/11/20141126-alliance.html|title=Renault-Nissan Alliance sells its 200,000th electric vehicle |publisher=Renault Media |location=Paris and Yokohama|date=2014-11-26|access-date=2014-11-28}}</ref>
@@ Line 357: / Line 155: @@
 [[File:2018 Renault ZOE.jpg|thumb|left|Global sales of the [[Renault Zoe]], released in 2012, achieved the 50,000 unit milestone in June 2016.<ref name="Zoe50K">{{cite news| url=http://www.hybridcars.com/renault-zoe-and-bmw-i3-join-the-50000-sales-club/ | title=Renault Zoe and BMW i3 Join The 50,000 Sales Club |first=Jeff |last=Cobb| work=HybridCars.com| date=2016-08-01| access-date=2016-08-01}} ''{{As of|2016|06}}, cumulative global sales of the top selling plug-in electric cars were led by the Nissan Leaf (about 225,000), Tesla Model S (over 129,000), BYD Qin (56,191), Renault Zoe (51,193), and BMW i3 (almost 50,000).''</ref>]]
-[[File:Toyota Mirai – Frontansicht, 11. November 2018, Düsseldorf.jpg|thumb|2014: Toyota Mirai. Not a Battery Electric Vehicle but a Hydrogen Electric Vehicle: H2EV? – photo 11. November 2018, Düsseldorf]]
-=== 2015 ===
 [[General Motors]] unveiled the [[Chevrolet Bolt EV]] [[concept car]] at the 2015 [[North American International Auto Show]].<ref name="AB01122015">{{cite news|url=http://www.autoblog.com/2015/01/12/chevrolet-bolt-ev-concept-video-detroit-2015/|title=Chevrolet Bolt EV Concept foreshadows an affordable, 200-mile EV future [w/videos] |first=Brandon |last=Turkus |work=Autoblog.com|date=2015-01-12|access-date=2015-01-12}}</ref> The Bolt is scheduled for availability in late 2016 as a [[model year]] 2017.<ref>{{cite press release|url= http://media.gm.com/media/us/en/chevrolet/news.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2015/feb/chicago/0212-bolt-ev.html |title=Chevrolet Commits to Bolt EV Production |publisher=General Motors Media |date=2015-02-12 |access-date=2015-02-17}}</ref> GM anticipates the Bolt will deliver an [[all-electric range]] more than {{Convert|200|mi|abbr=in|order=flip}}, with pricing starting at {{USD|37,500}} before any applicable [[Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles#United States|government incentives]].<ref name="LAT01122015">{{cite news|url=http://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-0113-chevrolet-volt-bolt-20150112-story.html|title=Chevy Bolt electric car targets Tesla with low price, long range|first1=Brian |last1=Thevenot |first2=Jerry |last2=Hirsch|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=2015-01-12|access-date=2015-01-13}}</ref> The European version, marketed as the Opel Ampera-e, will go into production in 2017.<ref name="Ampera_e">{{cite news|url= http://fortune.com/2016/02/11/gm-chevy-bolt-opel-ampera-e/ | title=GM Unveils an All-Electric Car for Europe |first=Kirsten |last=Korosec |work=Fortune |date=2016-02-11 |access-date=2016-02-12}}</ref>
@@ Line 371: / Line 166: @@
 {{As of|2015|12}}, global sales of electric cars were led by the Nissan Leaf with over 200,000 units sold making the Leaf the world's top selling highway-capable electric car in history. The [[Tesla Model S]], with global deliveries of more than 100,000 units, listed as the world's second best selling all-electric car of all-time.<ref name="ModelS100K">{{cite news|url= http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-crossed-100000-sales-milestone-this-month/|title=Tesla Model S Crossed 100,000 Sales Milestone This Month |first=Jeff |last=Cobb|work=HybridCars.com|date=2015-12-15|access-date=2015-12-17}} ''Accounting for global cumulative sales by December 2015, plug-in electric car sales are led by the Nissan Leaf (200,000), followed by the Tesla Model S (100,000). {{As of|2015|11}}, Mitsubishi i-MiEV family (~50,000), BYD Qin (45,275), BMW i3 (38,581), Renault Zoe (36,040), and the Ford Fusion Energi (26,742). Combines sales of the top 10 PEV models represent almost 50% of cumulative global PEV sales through November 2015)''</ref> The Model S ranked as the world's best selling [[plug-in electric vehicle]] in 2015, up from second best in 2014.<ref name="Top2015Global">{{cite news |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-was-worlds-best-selling-plug-in-car-in-2015/ |title=Tesla Model S Was World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015 |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com |date=2016-01-12 |access-date=2016-01-13}}</ref><ref name="Top102014">{{cite web |url=http://www.hybridcars.com/2014s-top-10-global-best-selling-plug-in-cars/10/ |title=2014's Top-10 Global Best-Selling Plug-in Cars |first=Jeff |last=Cobb |publisher=HybridCars.com |date=2015-02-11 |access-date=2015-02-11}} ''A total of 31,655 units were sold worldwide in 2014. Global cumulative sales since June 2012 totaled 56,782 Model S cars by the end of 2014.''</ref> The Model S was also the top selling plug-in car in the U.S. in 2015.<ref name="Sales2015US">{{cite news|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/december-2015-dashboard/|title=December 2015 Dashboard|first=Jeff |last=Cobb |work=HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates|date=2016-01-06|access-date=2016-03-14}}</ref> Most models released in the world's markets to retail customers during 2015 were plug-in hybrids. The only new series production all-electric cars launched up to October 2015 were the [[BYD e5]] and the [[Tesla Model X]], together with several variants of the [[Tesla Model S]] line-up.<ref name="ModelXfirst">{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2015/09/20140930-modelx.html|title=Tesla CEO Musk launches Model X electric SUV: "safest SUV ever" |first=Mike |last=Millikin |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2015-09-30|access-date=2015-10-03}}</ref>
-[[File:BYD e5 Electric Taxicab in Bengbu.jpg|thumb|BYD e5 Electric Taxicab in Bengbu]]
 [[File:2017 Tesla Model S 75D Front.jpg |thumb|The [[Tesla Model S]] was the top-selling [[plug-in electric car]] worldwide in 2015 and 2016.<ref name=Top10PEVs2016/>]]
-=== 2016 ===
 The [[Tesla Model 3]] was unveiled on 31 March 2016. With pricing starting at {{USD|35,000}} and an [[all-electric range]] of {{convert|215|mi|abbr=in|order=flip|round=5}}, the Model 3 is [[Tesla Motors]] first vehicle aimed for the [[mass market]]. Before the unveiling event, over 115,000 people had reserved the Model 3.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tesla's Musk: Model 3 Orders Surpassed 115,000 Within 24 Hours |first=John |last=Stoll |website=The Wall Street Journal|date=2016-02-10 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/teslas-musk-model-3-orders-surpassed-115-000-within-24-hours-1459483890 |access-date=2016-04-02}}</ref> {{As of|2016|04|07}}, one week after the event, Tesla Motors reported over 325,000 reservations,<!--Please provide a reliable source to support the updated number of reservations. Otherwise the edit might be removed promptly--> more than triple the 107,000 Model S cars Tesla had sold by the end of 2015. These reservations represent potential sales of over {{USD|14 billion}}.<ref name="325KModel3">{{cite news| url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-04-07/tesla-says-model-3-pre-orders-surge-to-325-000-in-first-week | title=Tesla Says It Received More Than 325,000 Model 3 Reservations |first=Dana |last=Hull |work=Bloomberg News | date=2016-04-07| access-date=2016-04-07}}</ref><ref name="SFG02042016">{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Tesla-Model-3-reservations-near-198-000-7223394.php| title=Tesla Model 3 reservations top 232,000 |first=David R. |last=Baker | work=San Francisco Chronicle| date=2016-04-01| access-date=2016-04-02}} ''Tesla Motors had sold 107,000 Model S cars by the end of 2015''</ref> {{As of|2016|03|31}}, Tesla Motors has sold almost 125,000 electric cars worldwide since delivery of its first Tesla Roadster in 2008.<ref name="Tesla125K">{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/tesla-motors-tsla-1q-2016-sales-14820-model-s-model-x-cars-were-delivered-first-three-2348000 |title= Tesla Motors (TSLA) 1Q 2016 Sales: 14,820 Model S, Model X Cars Were Delivered In First Three Months; Model S Sales Jumped 45% |first=Angelo | last=Young |work=[[International Business Times]] |date=2016-04-04|access-date=2016-04-04}}</ref> Tesla reported the number of net reservations totaled about 373,000 {{as of|2016|05|15|lc=y}}, after about 8,000 customer cancellations and about 4,200 reservations canceled by the automaker because these appeared to be duplicates from speculators.<ref name="373K">{{cite web | url=http://insideevs.com/tesla-to-raise-2-billion-373000-people-have-reserved-a-model-3/ | title=Tesla, Musk Plan $2 Billion Stock Sale To Build Model 3, 373,000 People Reserved |first=Jay |last=Cole |website=InsideEVs |date=2016-05-18 |access-date=2016-05-18 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Tesla to Sell $1.4 Billion in Shares for Expanded Production |url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-05-18/tesla-to-sell-1-4-billion-in-shares-for-expanded-production | first=Dana |last=Hull |work=Bloomberg News |date=2016-05-18 |access-date=2016-05-18 }}</ref>
-[[File:Hyundai Ioniq Electric (12).JPG|thumb|Hyundai Ioniq Electric (12)]]
 The [[Hyundai Ioniq Electric]] was released in South Korea in July 2016, and sold over 1,000 units during its first two months in the market.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/business/2016/09/12/0503000000AEN20160912002500320.html | title=Hyundai's Ioniq EV sales top 1,000 units | work=Yonhap News Agency | date=2016-09-12 | access-date=2016-09-22}}</ref> The [[Renault-Nissan Alliance]] achieved the milestone of 350,000 electric vehicles sold globally in August 2016, and also set an industry record of 100,000 electric vehicles sold in a single year.<ref name="RN350K">{{cite press release | url=http://blog.alliance-renault-nissan.com/content/renault-nissan-alliance-hits-milestone-350000-electric-vehicles-sold-maintains-position-glob | title=Renault-Nissan Alliance hits milestone of 350,000 electric vehicles sold, maintains position as global EV leader | publisher=Renault-Nissan Alliance | location=Paris/Yokohama | date=2016-09-13 | access-date=2016-09-13 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223135611/http://blog.alliance-renault-nissan.com/content/renault-nissan-alliance-hits-milestone-350000-electric-vehicles-sold-maintains-position-glob | archive-date=23 February 2017 | url-status=dead }} ''The Alliance has sold its 350,000th electric vehicle since December 2010, when the Nissan LEAF went on sale. The milestone was achieved in August 2016. The Alliance also set an industry record of 100,000 EVs sold in a single year.''</ref> [[Nissan]] global electric vehicle sales passed the 250,000 unit milestone also in August 2016.<ref name=RN350K/> [[Renault]] global electric vehicle sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in early September 2016.<ref name="Renault100K">{{cite press release | url=http://media.renault.com/global/en-gb/renault/Media/PressRelease.aspx?mediaid=81871&nodeid=product31554 | title=Renault hands over the key to its 100,000th electric vehicle | publisher=Groupe Renault | location=Oslo | date=2016-09-09| access-date=2016-09-11}}</ref> Global sales of the [[Tesla Model X]] passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016, with most cars delivered in the United States.<ref name="ModelX10K">{{cite web|url=http://insideevs.com/tesla-model-x-crosses-the-10000-sold-mark/ |title=Tesla Model X Crosses The 10,000 Sold Mark |first=Mark |last=Kane |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2016-09-14 |access-date=2016-09-15}}</ref>
@@ Line 391: / Line 181: @@
 [[File:EV parking lot Oslo 10 2018 3805.jpg|thumb|left|Dedicated free parking lot for electric cars in [[Oslo]]. In October 2018, 1 in every 10 passenger cars on Norwegian roads was a plug-in.<ref name=Norway10pt/>]]
-=== 2017 ===
 In February 2017 [[Consumer Reports]] named [[Tesla Inc.|Tesla]] as the top car brand in the United States and ranked it 8th among global carmakers.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.consumerreports.org/cars-which-car-brands-make-the-best-vehicles-2017/ |title=Which Car Brands Make the Best Vehicles? |first=Jeff S. |last=Bartlett |work=Consumer Reports |date=2017-02-28 |access-date=2017-03-03}}</ref> Deliveries of the Tesla Model S passed the 200,000 unit milestone during the fourth quarter of 2017.<ref name="ModelS200k">{{cite news | url=http://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-quietly-sold-200000th-model-s-last-year/ |title=Tesla Quietly Sold 200,000th Model S Last Year | first= Jeff | last=Cobb | work= HybridCars.com | date=2018-01-22 |access-date=2018-10-20}} "Tesla sold its 200,000 Model S in the fourth quarter of 2017, in October or early November, becoming the second plug-in car to cross this sales threshold after the Nissan Leaf (300,000 units by early 2017). {{As of|2017|12}}, Tesla reported global sales of 212,874 Model S cars."</ref> Global sales of the Nissan Leaf achieved the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018.<ref name="Leaf300k">{{cite press release|title=Nissan delivers 300,000th Nissan LEAF |url=https://newsroom.nissan-global.com/releases/release-4a75570239bf1983b1e6a41b7d00d8f5-nissan-delivers-300000th-nissan-leaf |publisher=[[Nissan]] |location=Yokohama |date=2018-01-08 |access-date=2018-01-14}}</ref>
@@ Line 398: / Line 187: @@
 [[File:2018 Nissan Leaf 2.Zero Front.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Nissan Leaf listed as all-time best selling [[plug-in car|plug-in electric passenger car]] until December 2019, with 450,000 global sales.<ref name=Leaf450K/><ref name=Model3TopEV/>]]
-=== 2018 ===
 Tesla delivered its 100,000th [[Tesla Model 3|Model 3]] in October 2018.<ref name="100kModel3">{{cite web |url=https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1119793_finalist-for-green-car-reports-best-car-to-buy-2019-tesla-model-3 |title=Finalist for Green Car Reports Best Car To Buy 2019: Tesla Model 3 |work=Green Car Reports |first=Bengt |last=Halvorson |date=2018-11-08 |access-date=2018-11-09}}</ref> U.S. sales of the Model 3 reached the 100,000 unit milestone in November 2018, quicker than any previous model sold in the country.<ref name="Model3US100K">{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/tesla-model-3-sales-november-u-s-2018/ |title=Tesla Model 3 Sales Charge Way Past Milestone of 100,000 in U.S. |first=Eric |last=Loveday |publisher=InsideEVs.com |date=2018-12-04 |access-date=2018-12-04}}</ref> The Model 3 was the top-selling [[plug-in electric car]] in the U.S. for 12 consecutive months since January 2018, ending 2018 as the best-selling plug-in with an estimated all-time record of 139,782 units delivered, the first time a plug-in car sold more than 100 thousand units in a single year.<ref name="US2018Tesla">{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/u-s-tesla-sales-december-2018-up/ |title=U.S. Tesla Sales In December 2018 Up By 249% |author=Mark Kane |work=Inside EVs |date=2019-01-03 |access-date=2019-01-09}}</ref><ref name="US2018sales">{{cite web |url=https://insideevs.com/december-2018-u-s-ev-sales-recap/ |title=December 2018 U.S. EV Sales Recap: Over 360K Secured! |author=Steven Loveday |work=Inside EVs |date=2019-01-07 |access-date=2019-01-09}}</ref><ref name="TopUS2018">{{cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/us-plug-in-electric-car-sales-charted-december-2018/ |title=US Plug-In Electric Car Sales Charted: December 2018 | first=Mark | last=Kane | publisher=InsideEVs.com| date=2019-01-24 | access-date=2019-01-24}} ''See Graph: "Top 10 U.S. Plug-in cars (cumulative sales)" and "U.S. Plug-in Car Sales (cumulative)"''</ref> In 2018, for the first time in any country, an all-electric car topped annual sales of the passenger car segment. The Nissan Leaf was Norway's best selling new passenger car model in 2018.<ref name="Norsk2018Top">{{cite web| url=https://elbil.no/nissan-leaf-mest-solgte-bilmodell-i-2018/ | title=Nissan LEAF mest solgte bilmodell i 2018 |language=no |trans-title=Nissan LEAF is the most sold car model in 2018 |first=Petter |last=Haugneland |publisher=Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) | date=2019-01-04 | access-date=2019-01-10}}</ref><ref name="Norsk2018Top10">{{cite web| url=https://www.dinside.no/motor/dette-var-nordmenns-favoritt-biler-i-2018/70621289 | title=Dette var nordmenns favoritt-biler i 2018 |language=no |trans-title=These were Norwegians' favorite cars in 2018 |author=Øystein Fossum |publisher=Dinside.no | date=2019-01-05 | access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref> The Tesla Model 3 listed as the world's best selling plug-in electric car in 2018.<ref name=Top20Global2018/>
 [[File:Ratio BEV to PHEV annual sales 2011 2018.png|thumb|left|Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2020.<ref name=Global2020>{{cite web| url=http://www.ev-volumes.com/news/86364/ | title=Global Plug-in Vehicle Sales Reached over 3,2 Million in 2020 | first=Roland | last=Irle  |publisher=EV-volumes.com | date=2021-01-19 | access-date=2021-01-20}} ''Plug-in sales totaled 3.24 million in 2020, up from 2.26 million in 2019. Europe, with nearly 1.4 million untits surpassed China as the largest EV market for the first time since 2015.''</ref><ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name=EVImckinsey2017/><ref name=Top20Global2019/>]]
-=== 2019 ===
 In January 2019, with 148,046 units sold since inception in the American market, the Model 3 overtook the Model S to become the all-time best selling all-electric car in the U.S.<ref name="Top3US012019">{{cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/us-plug-in-electric-car-sales-charted-january-2019/ |title=US Plug-In Electric Car Sales Charted: January 2019 | first=Mark | last=Kane | publisher=InsideEVs.com| date=2019-02-04 | access-date=2019-02-06}} ''See Graph: "Top 10 U.S. Plug-in cars (cumulative sales)" In January 209 the Tesla Model 3 (148,046) overtook the Model S (144,767). The Chevrolet Volt (152,819) continues as the all-time best selling plug-in car in the U.S.''</ref> Until 2019, the Nissan Leaf was the world's all-time top selling highway legal electric car, with global sales of 450,000 units through December 2019.<ref name="Leaf450K">{{cite press release |title=The "E" side of EV: Nissan brings excitement from the road to the track with LEAF Nismo RC unleashed for the first time in Europe |url=https://europe.nissannews.com/en-GB/releases/release-a9f393adfcdb4c875b17ca02b001a9dc-nissan-brings-excitement-from-the-road-to-the-track-with-leaf-nismo-rc-unleashed-for-the-first-time-in-europe |publisher=Nissan Europe |location=Valencia, Spain |date=2020-01-20 |access-date=2020-05-03}}</ref> The Tesla Model 3 ended 2019 as the world's best selling plug-in electric car for the second consecutive year, with just over 300,000 units delivered.<ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name=Top20Global2019/> Also, the Model 3 topped the annual list of best selling passenger car models in the overall market in two countries, Norway and the Netherlands.<ref name="TopOverallSales">{{cite web| url=https://cleantechnica.com/2020/01/19/tesla-model-3-1-best-selling-automobile-in-netherlands-norway-in-2019/ | title=Tesla Model 3 = #1 Best Selling Auto In Netherlands & Norway In 2019 |first=Zachary |last=Shahan |work=Clean Technica | date=2020-01-19| access-date=2020-05-16 |quote=In Norway and the Netherlands, the Model 3 was the #1 best selling automobile of any kind in any class in 2019.}}</ref><ref name="OFV2019Modell">{{cite web |url=https://ofv.no/registreringsstatistikk |title=OFV Registreringsstatistikk |language=no|trans-title=OFV Registration Statistics |author=Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) |publisher=OFV |date=January 2020 |access-date=10 May 2020}}'' To access the sales ranking by model choose "Modell" and the tabs for "2019" and "Desember" - The Tesla Model 3 was the best selling passenger car in Norway in 2019 with 15,683 units registered.''</ref>
-The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars reached 5.1&nbsp;million units in December 2018, consisting of 3.3&nbsp;million all-electric cars (65%) and 1.8&nbsp;million plug-in hybrid cars (35%).<ref name="Global3mi">{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/25/electric-and-plug-in-hybrid-cars-3m-worldwide |title=Electric and plug-in hybrid cars whiz past 3m mark worldwide | first=Adam | last=Vaughan | work=[[The Guardian]] | date=2017-12-25 | access-date=2018-01-20}} "The number of fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars on the world's roads passed the 3&nbsp;million mark in November 2017."</ref><ref name="Top20Global2018">{{cite web|url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/01/global-top-20-december-2018.html| title=Global Top 20 - December 2018| last=Jose | first=Pontes | publisher=EVSales.com| date=2019-01-31 | access-date=2019-01-31}} "Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, with a BEV:PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a market share of 2.1%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2018, followed by BYD."</ref> The global ratio between BEVs and PHEVs has been shifting towards fully electric cars, it went from 56:44 in 2012 to 60:40 in 2015, and rose from 69:31 in 2018 to 74:26 in 2019.<ref name="Top20Global2019">{{cite web|url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2020/01/global-top-20-december-2019.html | title=Global Top 20 - December 2019 | last=Jose | first=Pontes | publisher=EVSales.com| date=2020-01-31 | access-date=2020-05-10}} "Global sales totaled 2,209,831 plug-in passenger cars in 2019, with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 74:26, and a global market share of 2.5%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 300,075 units delivered, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2019 with 367,820 units, followed by BYD with 229,506."</ref><ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name="EVImckinsey2017">{{cite web| url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/the-global-electric-vehicle-market-is-amped-up-and-on-the-rise | title=The global electric-vehicle market is amped up and on the rise |first1=Patrick |last1=Hertzke |first2=Nicolai |last2=Müller |first3=Stephanie |last3= Schenk |first4=Ting |last4=Wu |work=[[McKinsey & Company]] | date=May 2018 | access-date=2019-01-27}} ''See Exhibit 1: Global electric-vehicle sales, 2010-17''.</ref> Despite the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 [[motor vehicle]]s on the world's roads at the end of 2018.<ref name="EVGlobal2018inuse">{{cite news | url=https://qz.com/1533976/automakers-may-overproduce-14-million-electric-cars-by-2030/ |title=E-nough? Automakers may have completely overestimated how many people want electric cars | first=Michael J. | last=Coren | work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] | date=2019-01-25 | access-date=2019-01-25 |quote=The plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2018 }} ''A rate of 1/250 translates into 0.40% of all vehicles on the world's roads.''</ref>
+The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars reached 5.1&nbsp;million units in December 2018, consisting of 3.3&nbsp;million all-electric cars (65%) and 1.8&nbsp;million plug-in hybrid cars (35%).<ref name="Global3mi">{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/25/electric-and-plug-in-hybrid-cars-3m-worldwide |title=Electric and plug-in hybrid cars whiz past 3m mark worldwide | first=Adam | last=Vaughan | work=[[The Guardian]] | date=2017-12-25 | access-date=2018-01-20}} "The number of fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars on the world’s roads passed the 3&nbsp;million mark in November 2017."</ref><ref name="Top20Global2018">{{cite web|url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2019/01/global-top-20-december-2018.html| title=Global Top 20 - December 2018| last=Jose | first=Pontes | publisher=EVSales.com| date=2019-01-31 | access-date=2019-01-31}} "Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, with a BEV:PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a market share of 2.1%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2018, followed by BYD."</ref> The global ratio between BEVs and PHEVs has been shifting towards fully electric cars, it went from 56:44 in 2012 to 60:40 in 2015, and rose from 69:31 in 2018 to 74:26 in 2019.<ref name="Top20Global2019">{{cite web|url=http://ev-sales.blogspot.com/2020/01/global-top-20-december-2019.html | title=Global Top 20 - December 2019 | last=Jose | first=Pontes | publisher=EVSales.com| date=2020-01-31 | access-date=2020-05-10}} "Global sales totaled 2,209,831 plug-in passenger cars in 2019, with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 74:26, and a global market share of 2.5%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 300,075 units delivered, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2019 with 367,820 units, followed by BYD with 229,506."</ref><ref name=Top20Global2018/><ref name="EVImckinsey2017">{{cite web| url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/the-global-electric-vehicle-market-is-amped-up-and-on-the-rise | title=The global electric-vehicle market is amped up and on the rise |first1=Patrick |last1=Hertzke |first2=Nicolai |last2=Müller |first3=Stephanie |last3= Schenk |first4=Ting |last4=Wu |work=[[McKinsey & Company]] | date=May 2018 | access-date=2019-01-27}} ''See Exhibit 1: Global electric-vehicle sales, 2010-17''.</ref> Despite the rapid growth experienced, the plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 [[motor vehicle]]s on the world's roads at the end of 2018.<ref name="EVGlobal2018inuse">{{cite news | url=https://qz.com/1533976/automakers-may-overproduce-14-million-electric-cars-by-2030/ |title=E-nough? Automakers may have completely overestimated how many people want electric cars | first=Michael J. | last=Coren | work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] | date=2019-01-25 | access-date=2019-01-25 |quote=The plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2018 }} ''A rate of 1/250 translates into 0.40% of all vehicles on the world's roads.''</ref>
 {{clear}}
+==2020s==
-[[File:Peugeot e-208 Allure Genf 2019 1Y7A5139.jpg|thumb|2019 Geneva show:Peugeot e-208 Allure with exactly the same chassis as the petrol engined versions]]
-=== Summary of the decade: succesfull and less succesfull developments===
-The 2010s saw the test of a number of dilemma’s faced by car manufacturers:
-* Charge or change?
-Renault bravely tried the ‘’change the battery in under 5 minutes concept’’ but so far the recharge strategy seems to have won.
-* Niche or Mass market?
-Towards the end of the decade it became obvious, clearly driven by regulations, that the EV would not remain a niche. With Volkswagens choice - after the Diesel fraud - to go for BEV’s it became clear that the fight would be in the mass market of medium prices cars.
-* Long range or quick charge?
-With the Tesla models, long ranges became possible at last. The verdict is still out whether quick charging of smaller batteries (with sorter ranges) can beat the long range more expensive and heavier cars.
-* Full BEV’s, PHEV’s or just hybrids?
-This one is also undecided, though just hybrid cars appear not to be a sufficient answer to the climate challenges as perceived by governments. With an increase in electric range, the PHEV’s are still an interesting option
-* Battery electric vehicles or Hydrogen electric vehicles?
-With just two manufacturers (Toyota and Hyundai) the challenge to create a widespread network for hydrogen/fuel cell vehicles appears to be too much of a challenge. Governments were ready to invest in one network only.
-==2020s: Billions invested by traditional car manufacturers, government regulations and the quest to win the heart of consumers==
 [[File:Tesla Model 3 19.06.19 JM 1.jpg|thumb|The [[Tesla Model 3]] is the world's all-time best selling [[plug-in electric car]], and became the first electric car to sell 1 million units in June 2021.<ref name=Model3TopEV/><ref name=1miModel3/>]]
+The [[Tesla Model 3]] surpassed the Nissan Leaf in early 2020 to become the world's best selling electric car ever, with more than 500,000 sold by March 2020.<ref name="Model3TopEV">{{cite news |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2020/03/10/tesla-passes-1-million-ev-milestone-and-model-3-becomes-all-time-best-seller/ |title=Tesla Passes 1 Million EV Milestone & Model 3 Becomes All Time Best Seller |first=Maximilian |last=Holland |website=CleanTechnica |date=2020-02-10 |access-date=2020-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412045911/https://cleantechnica.com/2020/03/10/tesla-passes-1-million-ev-milestone-and-model-3-becomes-all-time-best-seller/ |archive-date=12 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> Tesla also became the first auto manufacturer to produce 1 million electric cars in March 2020.<ref name="1million">{{Cite web|url=https://electrek.co/2020/03/09/tesla-produces-1000000th-electric-car/|title=Tesla produces its 1 millionth electric car|last=Lambert|first=Fred|date=2020-03-10|website=Electrek|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref> Global sales of the Model 3 passed the 1&nbsp;million milestone in June 2021, the first electric car model to do so.<ref name=AllTimeModel2082020/><ref name=1miModel3>{{cite web|url=https://cleantechnica.com/2021/08/26/tesla-model-3-has-passed-1-million-sales/ |title=Tesla Model 3 Has Passed 1 Million Sales |first=Zachary |last=Shahan |publisher=CleanTechnica |date=2021-08-26 |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref>
-[[File:2020 Volkswagen ID.3 1st Front.jpg|thumb|2020: Volkswagen ID.3 1st]]
+The Nissan Leaf achieved the milestone of 500,000 units sold globally in early December 2020, 10 years after its inception.<ref name=Leaf500K>{{cite web|url=https://www.automotiveworld.com/news-releases/nissan-marks-10-years-of-leaf-sales-with-over-500000-sold-worldwide/ |title=Nissan marks 10 years of LEAF sales, with over 500,000 sold worldwide | author=Nissan | publisher=Automotive World | date=2020-12-03 | access-date=2020-12-11|quote=Nissan today celebrated the 10th anniversary of the Nissan LEAF and the delivery of 500,000 LEAF vehicles since the model was first introduced. More than 148,000 have been sold in the United States}}</ref> Combined sales of [[plug-in electric car]]s and light-duty commercial vans since 2010 achieved the 10&nbsp;million unit milestone by the end of 2020.<ref name=Global2020/>
-[[File:Mini Hatch (F56) Electric IMG 2679.jpg|thumb|Mini Hatch (F56) Electric IMG 2679]]
+== Electric bicycle ==
-[[File:Ford Mustang Mach-E AWD First Edition – f 15072021.jpg|thumb|2021: Ford Mustang Mach-E AWD First Edition – f 15072021]]
+{{main|Electric bicycle}}
+The principal manufacturer of e-bikes globally is China, with 2009 seeing the manufacturer of 22.2 million units. In the world Geoby is the leading manufacturers of E-bikes. Pedego is the best selling in the U.S.
-[[File:Lightyear One at Goodwood Festival of Speed.jpg|thumb|Lightyear One at Goodwood Festival of Speed]]
+China accounts for nearly 92% of the market worldwide. In China the number of electric bicycles on the road was 120 million in 2010. Jiangsu Yadea, an electric bicycle producer of renown in China, leads the ranking of China National Light Industry Council (CNLIC) electric bicycle industry for three years. It retains capacity of nearly 6 million electric bicycles a year.
-The [[Tesla Model 3]] surpassed the Nissan Leaf in early 2020 to become the world's best selling electric car ever, with more than 500,000 sold by March 2020.<ref name="Model3TopEV">{{cite news |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2020/03/10/tesla-passes-1-million-ev-milestone-and-model-3-becomes-all-time-best-seller/ |title=Tesla Passes 1 Million EV Milestone & Model 3 Becomes All Time Best Seller |first=Maximilian |last=Holland |website=CleanTechnica |date=2020-02-10 |access-date=2020-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412045911/https://cleantechnica.com/2020/03/10/tesla-passes-1-million-ev-milestone-and-model-3-becomes-all-time-best-seller/ |archive-date=12 April 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Tesla also became the first auto manufacturer to produce 1 million electric cars in March 2020.<ref name="1million">{{Cite web|url=https://electrek.co/2020/03/09/tesla-produces-1000000th-electric-car/|title=Tesla produces its 1 millionth electric car|last=Lambert|first=Fred|date=2020-03-10|website=Electrek|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref> Global sales of the Model 3 passed the 1&nbsp;million milestone in June 2021, the first electric car model to do so.<ref name=AllTimeModel2082020/><ref name=1miModel3>{{cite web|url=https://cleantechnica.com/2021/08/26/tesla-model-3-has-passed-1-million-sales/ |title=Tesla Model 3 Has Passed 1 Million Sales |first=Zachary |last=Shahan |publisher=CleanTechnica |date=2021-08-26 |access-date=2021-08-26}}</ref>
-The Nissan Leaf achieved the milestone of 500,000 units sold globally in early December 2020, 10 years after its inception.<ref name=Leaf500K>{{cite web|url=https://www.automotiveworld.com/news-releases/nissan-marks-10-years-of-leaf-sales-with-over-500000-sold-worldwide/ |title=Nissan marks 10 years of LEAF sales, with over 500,000 sold worldwide | author=Nissan | publisher=Automotive World | date=2020-12-03 | access-date=2020-12-11|quote=Nissan today celebrated the 10th anniversary of the Nissan LEAF and the delivery of 500,000 LEAF vehicles since the model was first introduced. More than 148,000 have been sold in the United States}}</ref> Combined sales of [[plug-in electric car]]s and light-duty commercial vans since 2010 achieved the 10&nbsp;million unit milestone by the end of 2020.<ref name=Global2020/>
+In 1997, Charger Electric Bicycle was the first U.S. company to come out with a [[pedelec]].
-=== Government regulations, grants and tax benefits play an important role ===
-(Under construction)
-Where the first ‘Golden Age of the electric car (between 1895 and 1920) was the result of free market initiative, the start of the period that might become a second “Golden Age’’ was heavily influenced by government regulations all over the world.
 == Timeline of milestones ==
@@ Line 449: / Line 214: @@
 [[File:Global plug-in car sales since 2011.png|thumb|350px|Evolution of annual sales of [[plug-in electric car|plug-in electric passenger cars]] in the world's top markets (countries/regions) between 2011 and 2020.]]
-{|class="wikitable sortable"
+{|class="wikitable sortable" style="align: left; "
 |-
-! Date || Timeline of electric vehicle milestones
+! style="background:#ABCDEF;"| Date || style="background:#abcdef;"|Timeline of electric vehicle milestones
 |- align=center
-|1875||align=left| World's first [[electric tram]] line operated in [[Sestroretsk]] near <br />[[Saint Petersburg]], Russia, invented and tested by [[Fyodor Pirotsky]].<ref>{{cite book |first=C.N. |last=Pyrgidis |title=Railway Transportation Systems: Design, Construction and Operation |publisher=CRC Press |location=Florida |year=2016 |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Ye.N. |last=Petrova |title=St. Petersburg in Focus: Photographers of the Turn of the Century; in Celebration of the Tercentenary of St. Petersburg |publisher=Palace Ed. |year=2003 |page=12 |isbn=9785933321149}}</ref>
+|1875||align=left| World's first [[electric tram]] line operated in [[Sestroretsk]] near <br>[[Saint Petersburg]], Russia, invented and tested by [[Fyodor Pirotsky]].<ref>{{cite book |first=C.N. |last=Pyrgidis |title=Railway Transportation Systems: Design, Construction and Operation |publisher=CRC Press |location=Florida |year=2016 |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Ye.N. |last=Petrova |title=St. Petersburg in Focus: Photographers of the Turn of the Century; in Celebration of the Tercentenary of St. Petersburg |publisher=Palace Ed. |year=2003 |page=12 |isbn=9785933321149}}</ref>
 |- align=center
-|1881||align=left| World's first commercially successful [[electric tram]], the [[Gross-Lichterfelde tramway]]<br /> in [[Lichterfelde (Berlin)|Lichterfelde]] near Berlin in Germany built by [[Werner von Siemens]] <br />who contacted Pirotsky. It initially drew current from the rails, with [[Overhead line|overhead wire]] being installed in 1883.
+|1881||align=left| World's first commercially successful [[electric tram]], the [[Gross-Lichterfelde tramway]]<br> in [[Lichterfelde (Berlin)|Lichterfelde]] near Berlin in Germany built by [[Werner von Siemens]] <br>who contacted Pirotsky. It initially drew current from the rails, with [[Overhead line|overhead wire]] being installed in 1883.
 |- align=center
-|1882||align=left|The [[trolleybus]] dates back to 29 April 1882, when Dr. [[Ernst Werner von Siemens|Ernst Werner Siemens]]<br /> demonstrated his "[[Elektromote]]" in a Berlin suburb. This experiment continued until 13 June 1882
+|1882||align=left|The [[trolleybus]] dates back to 29 April 1882, when Dr. [[Ernst Werner von Siemens|Ernst Werner Siemens]]<br> demonstrated his "[[Elektromote]]" in a Berlin suburb. This experiment continued until 13 June 1882
 |- align=center
-|1883||align=left|[[Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram]], Vienna, Austria, first [[electric tram]] <br />powered by [[overhead wire]].
+|1883||align=left|[[Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram]], Vienna, Austria, first [[electric tram]] <br>powered by [[overhead wire]].
 |- align=center
-|1884||align=left|Thomas Parker&nbsp;built a practical production [[electric car]] in&nbsp;Wolverhampton&nbsp;using his own <br />specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries.
+|1884||align=left|Thomas Parker&nbsp;built a practical production [[electric car]] in&nbsp;Wolverhampton&nbsp;using his own <br>specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries.
 |- align=center
 |{{Date table sorting|Dec 1996}} || align=left|Launch of the limited production [[General Motors EV1]]<ref name="CarandDriverAug09">{{cite news |title=Driving the Future|last=Quiroga|first=Tony|date=August 2009|work=Car and Driver |publisher=Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S., Inc. |page=52}}</ref><ref name="LAtimes">{{Cite news | last1 = Dean | first1 = Paul | last2 = Reed | first2 = Mack| title = An Electric Start – Media, Billboards, Web Site Herald Launch of the EV1 | newspaper = [[Los Angeles Times]] | date = 1996-12-06| access-date=2020-05-22|url = https://articles.latimes.com/1996-12-06/news/mn-6275_1_electric-start}}</ref>
 |- align=center
-| {{Date table sorting|Feb 2008}} ||align=left| First [[Tesla Roadster (2008)|Tesla Roadster]] delivered, becoming the first highway<br /> legal [[electric car]] to use [[lithium-ion battery]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.teslamotors.com/display_data.php?data_name=WardsAutoArticle |title=Drive Tesla Roadster; Forget What You Knew About Acceleration |first=Eric |last=Mayne |date=4 September 2009|publisher=Wards Auto |access-date=21 June 2010}}</ref>
+| {{Date table sorting|Feb 2008}} ||align=left| First [[Tesla Roadster (2008)|Tesla Roadster]] delivered, becoming the first highway<br> legal [[electric car]] to use [[lithium-ion battery]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.teslamotors.com/display_data.php?data_name=WardsAutoArticle |title=Drive Tesla Roadster; Forget What You Knew About Acceleration |first=Eric |last=Mayne |date=4 September 2009|publisher=Wards Auto |access-date=21 June 2010}}</ref>
 |- align=center
@@ Line 496: / Line 261: @@
 |- align=center
-| Early<br /> 2017 ||align=left|1&nbsp;millionth domestic [[new energy passenger car|new energy car]] sold in China<ref name="China500Kpax">{{cite news|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/china-buys-half-millionth-passenger-plug-in-car-on-track-to-surpass-us/ | title=China Buys Half-Millionth Passenger Plug-in Car; On Track To Surpass US | first=Jeff | last=Cobb| work=HybridCars.com| date=2016-09-28 |access-date=2016-09-28}} ''Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 689,447 units between 2011 and August 2016. Cumulative sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 493,290 units between 2010 and August 2016.''</ref><ref name="China2017">{{cite web | url=https://www.autonews.com/china/electrified-vehicle-sales-surge-53-2017 | title=Electrified vehicle sales surge 53% in 2017 |author=Automotive News China |publisher=Automotive News China | date=2018-01-16 |access-date=2020-05-22}} ''Chinese sales of domestically-built new energy vehicles in 2017 totaled 777,000''</ref>
+| Early<br> 2017 ||align=left|1&nbsp;millionth domestic [[new energy passenger car|new energy car]] sold in China<ref name="China500Kpax">{{cite news|url=http://www.hybridcars.com/china-buys-half-millionth-passenger-plug-in-car-on-track-to-surpass-us/ | title=China Buys Half-Millionth Passenger Plug-in Car; On Track To Surpass US | first=Jeff | last=Cobb| work=HybridCars.com| date=2016-09-28 |access-date=2016-09-28}} ''Sales of new energy vehicles totaled 689,447 units between 2011 and August 2016. Cumulative sales of new energy passenger cars totaled 493,290 units between 2010 and August 2016.''</ref><ref name="China2017">{{cite web | url=https://www.autonews.com/china/electrified-vehicle-sales-surge-53-2017 | title=Electrified vehicle sales surge 53% in 2017 |author=Automotive News China |publisher=Automotive News China | date=2018-01-16 |access-date=2020-05-22}} ''Chinese sales of domestically-built new energy vehicles in 2017 totaled 777,000''</ref>
 |- align=center
@@ Line 514: / Line 279: @@
 |- align=center
-| First half<br /> 2018 ||align=left| 1&nbsp;millionth plug-in electric car sold in Europe<ref name="1millionEU">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/26/electric-cars-exceed-1m-in-europe-as-sales-soar-by-more-than-40-per-cent |title=Electric cars exceed 1m in Europe as sales soar by more than 40% |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=26 August 2018 |access-date=23 October 2018}}</ref>
+| First half<br> 2018 ||align=left| 1&nbsp;millionth plug-in electric car sold in Europe<ref name="1millionEU">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/26/electric-cars-exceed-1m-in-europe-as-sales-soar-by-more-than-40-per-cent |title=Electric cars exceed 1m in Europe as sales soar by more than 40% |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=26 August 2018 |access-date=23 October 2018}}</ref>
 |- align=center
@@ Line 538: / Line 303: @@
 |- align=center
-| Early<br />2020 ||align=left|The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Nissan Leaf as the world's best selling plug-in electric car in history<ref name=Model3TopEV/>
+| Early<br>2020 ||align=left|The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Nissan Leaf as the world's best selling plug-in electric car in history<ref name=Model3TopEV/>
 |- align=center
@@ Line 547: / Line 312: @@
 |- align=center
-| {{Date table sorting|Apr 2020}} || align=left bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|10% of all cars on the road in Norway are all-electric<ref name="Norsk10%EVs">{{cite web|url=https://thedriven.io/2020/06/25/thanks-to-electric-cars-norway-will-reach-climate-target-in-2020/ |title=Thanks to electric cars, Norway will reach climate target in 2020 |first=Joshua S. |last=Hill |publisher=The Driven | date=2020-06-25 | access-date=2020-07-03 |quote=The share of electric cars on Norway's roads reached more than 10% of the total fleet in April}}</ref>
+| {{Date table sorting|Apr 2020}} || align=left bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|10% of all cars on the road in Norway are all-electric<ref name="Norsk10%EVs">{{cite web|url=https://thedriven.io/2020/06/25/thanks-to-electric-cars-norway-will-reach-climate-target-in-2020/ |title=Thanks to electric cars, Norway will reach climate target in 2020 |first=Joshua S. |last=Hill |publisher=The Driven | date=2020-06-25 | access-date=2020-07-03 |quote=The share of electric cars on Norway’s roads reached more than 10% of the total fleet in April}}</ref>
 |- align=center
@@ Line 560: / Line 325: @@
 |- align=center
 |align=left bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|Over 15% of all cars on Norwegian roads are plug-in electric.<ref name="Kjøretøybestanden2020">{{cite web |url=https://elbil.no/over-200-000-elbiler-i-norge/ |title=Personbilbestanden i Norge fordelt på drivstoff |language=no |trans-title=passenger car stock in Norway by fuel |first=Petter |last=Haugneland |publisher=Norsk Elbilforening (Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association) |date=January 2021 |access-date=2021-01-22}} See graph under "Personbilbestanden i Norge fordelt på drivstoff" - ''{{As of|2020|12|31}}, there were 12.06% all-electric cars and 5.11% are plug-in hybrid cars in use on Norwegian roads. Combined, plug-in electric passenger cars represented 17.17% of all cars in circulation in the country, up from 13.45% in 2019''.</ref>
 |- align=center
@@ Line 589: / Line 354: @@
 |1,841
 |30–80 miles
 | align=left | One of the first electric cars.
 |-align=center
@@ Line 596: / Line 361: @@
 |13,000<ref name="GCR032013">{{cite web|url= http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1082994_all-electric-corvette-coming-next-month-from-detroit-startup |title=All-Electric Sports Car Coming Next Month From Detroit Startup? |first=John |last=Voelcker |publisher=Green Car Reports|date=2013-03-19|access-date=2013-03-19}}</ref>
 |data-sort-value="80"|{{convert|80|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip|round=5}}
 | align=left | Over 13,000 manufactured, making it one of the most successful early electric vehicles.
 |-align=center
@@ Line 638: / Line 403: @@
 |4,000+<ref name="REVA4k">{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/money/report_govt-subsidy-may-rev-up-reva-sales_1520820|title=Govt subsidy may rev up Reva sales|publisher=Daily News & Analysis India |first=Praveena |last=Sharma |date=17 March 2011|access-date=2011-03-31}}</ref>
 |{{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip|round=5}}
 | align=left |
 |-align=center
@@ Line 665: / Line 430: @@
 |2010-
 |
-|97&nbsp;km (60 miles)
+|97 km (60 miles)
 | align=left |First [[Mass production|mass-produced]] plug-in hybrid automobile.
@@ Line 673: / Line 438: @@
 | 50,000 (2020)<ref name="Renault2011_16">{{cite web|url=https://group.renault.com/finance/informations-financieres/chiffre-cles/ventes-mensuelles| title= Ventes Mensuelles |language=fr| trans-title=Monthly Sales |publisher=Groupe Renault |date=January 2017 |access-date=2017-01-18 |quote=Includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on "(décembre 2016)" to download the file "XLSX - 239 Ko" for CYTD sales in 2016, and open the tab "Sales by Model". Click on "+ Voir plus" (See more) to download the files "Ventes mensuelles du groupe (décembre 2011) (xls, 183 Ko)" "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2012) (xls, 289 Ko)" - Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2013) (xlsx, 227 Ko)" - "XLSX - 220 Ko Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2014)" - "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2015)" to download the file "XLSX - 227 Ko" for 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 sales. Sales figures for 2013 were revised in the 2014 report}}</ref><ref name=Renault2017_2019/>
 |
 | align=left |As of December 2019, the top selling all-electric light commercial vehicle in Europe.
 |-align=center
@@ Line 680: / Line 445: @@
 | 200,000 (2017)<ref name=ModelS200k/>
 |data-sort-value="300"|{{convert|348|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip|round=5}} Performance mode
-{{Convert|402|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip|round=5}} Long Range Plus <ref>{{Cite web|title=Model S|url=https://www.tesla.com/models|access-date=2020-06-29|website=Tesla|language=en}}</ref>
+{{Convert|402|mi|km|abbr=}} Long Range Plus <ref>{{Cite web|title=Model S|url=https://www.tesla.com/models|access-date=2020-06-29|website=Tesla|language=en}}</ref>
 | align=left | First clean-slate design from [[Tesla, Inc.]]
@@ Line 702: / Line 467: @@
 |51,600 (2018)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gmauthority.com/blog/gm/chevrolet/chevrolet-bolt-ev/chevrolet-bolt-ev-sales-numbers/|title=Chevrolet Bolt EV Sales Numbers|website=GM Authority|access-date=2019-03-14}}</ref>
 |{{Convert|238|mi|abbr=out}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chevrolet.com/index/vehicles/2019/cars/bolt-ev/overview.html|title=2019 Bolt EV Electric Car: An Affordable All-Electric Car|website=Chevrolet|language=en|access-date=2019-03-14|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025223118/https://www.chevrolet.com/index/vehicles/2019/cars/bolt-ev/overview.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 | align=left |
 |-align=center
@@ Line 710: / Line 475: @@
 |{{convert|220|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip|round=5}} Standard version,
 {{convert|310|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip|round=5}} Long Range version
 | align=left | Most successful electric car worldwide, as of 2020.
 |}
@@ Line 751: / Line 516: @@
 [[Category:Electric vehicles|*]]
 [[Category:Electric vehicles introduced in the 20th century|*]]
-[[Category:History of electrical engineering|Vehicles]]
+[[Category:History of electrical engineering|Vehicles ]]

History of the electric vehicle: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 16:38, 12 November 2021

Early history

Electric model cars

Electric locomotives

First practical electric cars

Golden age

Power as a service and General Vehicle

1920s–1950s

1960s–1990s: Revival of interest

2000s: Modern highway-capable electric cars

2010s

2020s

Electric bicycle

Timeline of milestones

Notable production vehicles

See also

References

External links

Navigation menu

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